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MECHANICAL DEVICES 
IN THE HOME 

by 

EDITH ALLEN, M. A. 

Assistant Editor, U. S. Department of Agriculture 
Formerly 

Specialist in Home Economics in Kansas State Agricultural 

College, University of Texas, and Oklahoma 

Agricultural and Mechanical College 




THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS 
PEORIA, ILLINOIS 






Copyright 1922 

Edith Allen 

12C22 



Printed in the United States of America 

DEC -2 -22 i^ 

©Clft680736 



PREFACE 

IN WRITING this book, my aim has been (1) to give in- 
formation which will guide householders in selecting and 
installing the best cooking and heating devices, and in 
using them with the greatest economy of fuel and safety 
against accidents; (2) to explain the construction of lighting 
fixtures and how to determine the amount of light for health 
needed in various places; (3) to explain the principles of cool- 
ing; (4) to show how to make small repairs which save plumb- 
ers' bills; (5) to guide in the choice and care of laundry appli- 
ances and cooking utensils; (6) to familiarize women with the 
construction of electric, acetylene and gas plants and engines, 
and (7) to furnish tables of measure often needed for reference. 

There is a lack of material of this type which is non-tech- 
nical enough for the use of home economics students and 
housewives. The material which I have organized applies 
directly to the appliances with which women work and is of 
a nature to fill their need in this field. 

The book is designed as a text for senior-high school and 
junior-college classes, as well as for the needs of home-demon- 
stration agents, housewives and other women. 

Edith Allen 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 



The author is particularly indebted in the preparation of 
this book to John G. Thompson, professor of economics, Uni- 
versity of Illinois; J. K. T. Ekblaw, instructor of farm mech- 
anics. University of IlHnois, and editor of Farm Power; An- 
drey A. Potter, professor of steam and gas engineering, Kan- 
sas State Agricultural College; J. M. Bryant, professor of 
electrical engineering. University of Texas; Harrison E. Howe, 
National Council of Research; Miss Minna C. Denton, home 
economics specialist, United States Department of Agricul- 
ture; Miss Marie Dallas, Washington, D. C.;F. F. Good, in- 
structor in applied physics, Teachers' College, Columbia 
University, New York. 

The following is a list of companies furnishing illustrations, 
data and other information: 



American Blower Company. 
American Ironing Machine Co. 
American Lava Co. 
American Radiator Co. 
American Stove Co. 
Automatic Electric Washer Co. 
Baltimore Gas Appliance Co. 
Bates & Edmonds Motor Co. 
Bissel's Carpet Sweeper Co. 
Blake Mfg. Co. 
C. Brown Mfg. Co. 
B. Bryan Co. 

Central Construction & Supply Co. 
Central Oil & Gas Stove Co. 
Chambers Fireless Cooker Stove 

Co. 
Geo. M. Clark & Co. 
Cleveland Metal Products Co. 
Coleman Lamp Co. 



Consolidated Gas, Electric Light 

and Power Co. 
Cyphers Incubator Co. 
Dangler Stove Co. 
Davis Acetylene Co. 
The DeLaval Separator Co. 
Delco Motor Co. 
The Deming Co. 
Detroit Heating & Lighting Co. 
Detroit Stove Works. 
Detroit Vapor Stove Co. 
A. B. Dick Co. 
W. S. Dickey Clay Mfg. Co. 
The Durham Mfg. Co. 
Eagle Generator Co. 
Fuller, Warren & Co. 
General Electric Co. 
Hammond Typewriter Co. 
Hart & Crouse Co. 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 



Herrick Refrigerator Co. 
Huenfield Co. 
Humphrey Co. 
Hurley Machine Co. 
Kalamazoo Stove Co. 
Kewanee Water Supply Co. 
Klau-Van Pietersom-Dunlap. 
Landers, Frary, Clark & Co. 
Laundryette Mfg. Co. 
Manning, Bowman & Co. 
Mantle Lamp Co. of America. 
H. G. McFadden & Co. 
The Monitor Stove Co. 
National Electric Supply Co. 
Northwestern Steel & Iron Works. 
Pacific Flush Tank Co. 
Potomac Power & Lighting Co. 
Rathbone, Sard & Co. 
Reliable Stove Co. 
Remnert Mfg. Co. 
Rhinelander Refrigerator COi 
Ringen Stove Co. 
Rochester Rotary Washer Co. 
Rochester Stamping Co. 



Sears, Roebuck & Co. 

Sharpies Separator Co. 

Singer Sewing Machine Co. 

L. C. Smith & Bros. Typewriting 
Company. 

Standard Oil Co. 

Edward L. Stock. 

Thatcher Furnace Co. 

The Torrington Co. 

Toledo Cooker Co. 

Trenton Potteries Co. 

United Electric Co. 

United Pump & Powef Co. 

United States Dept. of Agricul- 
ture. 

United States Radiator Co. 

Voss Bros. Mfg. Co. 

Walker Bros. Co. 

Welsbach Co. 

Western Electric Co. 

White Frost Refrigerator Co. 

White Mop and Wringer Co. 

Wilcox & Gibbs Sewing Machine 
Co. 



The Yale & Towne Mfg. Co. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PART I. COOKING STOVES 
Chapter I. Wood and Coal Stoves .... 15 

1. Air supply of fire. 2. The grate. 3. Drafts or dampers. 4. 
Starting the fire. 5. Keeping a fire. 6. Heating the oven. 7. 
Ashes. 8. Ash chutes. 

Chapter II. Gas Stoves 23 

9. Burners. 10. Simmerers. 11. Air mixer. 12. Regulating the 
gas. 13. Lighting the stove. 14. Cleaning the stove. 15. Acci- 
dents with gas stove. 16. Pilot light. 17. Pilot for top burners. 
18. Gas-stove lighter. 19. Amount of gas used. 20. Cold-process 
gasoline gas stoves. 21. Acetylene stoves. 

Chapter III. Oil Stoves 31 

22. Purpose of oil stoves. 23. Mechanical parts of kerosene stove. 
24. The burner. 25. The chimney. 26. Lighting the stove. 27. 
Management of the flame. 28. Adjustment and care of the stove. 
29. When the stoves gives trouble. 30. Construction of gasoline 
stoves. 31. To light the stove. 32. Filling the gasoline stove. 
33. When a burner blazes and cannot be controlled. 34. Changing 
fuel in vapor stoves. 35. Operation of vapor stoves. 

Chapter IV. Electric Stoves 42 

36. Heating unit of electric stove. 37. Wiring of stoves. 38. 
Operation of electric stoves. 39. Care of electric stoves. 40. 
Utensils for electric stoves. 41. Detachable cooking devices. 

Chapter V. Alcohol, Acetylene, and Canned Heat 47 

42. Alcohol stoves. 43. Vapor stoves. 44. Wickless stoves. 45. 
Canned heat. 46. Acetylene gas stoves. 

Chapter VI. Fireless and Steam Cookers . . 50 

47. The fireless cooker. 48. The stones of fireless cookers. 49. 



8 CONTENTS 

Heating the stones. 50, Care of the cooker. 51. Other devices 
belonging to cookers. 52. Directions for using the cooker. 53. 
Time of cooking food. 54. Gas cookers. 55. Steam cookers. 

PART 11. HEATING DEVICES 
Chapter VII. Warm-Air Furnaces .... 57 

56. Principle upon which a furnace works. 57. The stove part. 
58. The cold-air shaft. 59. Hot-air pipes. 60. Location of the 
furnace. 61. Air. 62. Pipeless furnaces. 

Chapter VIII. Hot- Water System of Heating . 64 

63. Equipment for hot-water heat. 64. Heating unit. 65. The 
management of the fire. 66. The pipes. 67. Expansion tank. 
68. -Water. 69, Radiators. 

Chapter IX. Steam-Heating Systems ... 69 

70, Equipment for steam heat, 71. Steam gages. 72. Safety- 
valve. 

Chapter X. Fireplaces and Heating Stoves . 74 

73. Construction of fireplace. 74. Management of fireplace. 
75. Operating heating stoves. 76. Care of the stove. 

Chapter XL Gas, Electric and Kerosene Heaters 77 

77. Kinds of gas heaters. 78. Bunsen burner and asbestos-back 
heater. 79. Lighting gas stoves. 80. Care of gas stoves. 81. Il- 
luminating flame and bright metal reflector heaters. 82. Gas ra- 
diator, heaters. 83. Management of gas radiator. 84. Kerosene 
heaters. 85. Electric heaters. 86. Acetylene heaters. 

PART III. LIGHTING DEVICES 
Chapter XIL Electric Lights ..... 82 

87. Kinds of electric lamps in use, 88. Electrical measurements. 
89. Carbon lamps. 90. Mazda or tungsten lamps. 91. Selecting 
lamps for a room. 92. Effect of color schemes upon illumination. 
93. Distribution of light. 



CONTENTS 9 

Chapter XIII. Gas Light - 88 

94. Construction of mantles. 95. Care of mantles. 96. Fixtures 
for burning gas. 97. Adjustment. 98. Care of lamps. 99. Light- 
ing a gas light. 100. Cold-process gasoline gas. 101. Acetylene 
lamps. 102. Care of burners of acetylene lamps. 

Chapter XIV. Kerosene Lamps 93 

103. Construction of kerosene lamps. 104, Management of kero- 
sene lamps. 105. Lighting a kerosene lamp. 106. To extinguish 
a lamp. 107. Care of lamps. 108. Kerosene mantle lamps. 

Chapter XV. Alcohol and Gasoline Lamps . 96 

109. Classification of lamps. 110. Gravity lamps. 111. Light- 
ing the gravity lamp. 112. Pressure lamps. 113. Gasoline lamps 
with wicks. 114. Alcohol lamps with wicks. 115. Lighting alco- 
hol or gasoline lamps. 

PART IV. COOLING DEVICES 

Chapter XVI. Refrigerators 100 

116. Principles of refrigeration. 117. The construction of refrig- 
erators. 118. Lining refrigerators. 119. Insulation of refrig- 
erators. 120. Circulation in refrigerators. 121. Drip from melt- 
ing ice. 122. Arrangement of food in the ice box. 123. Filling and 
care of the ice box. 

Chapter XVII. Iceless Refrigerators; Water 

Coolers 105 

124. Comparative efficiency of iceless refrigerators. 125. Iceless 
refrigerator. 126. Small cooler. 127. Covered pail. 128. Un- 
glazed earthenware. 129. Cooling with running water. 130. Refrig- 
erating plants. 131. Water coolers. 132. Care of water coolers. 

Chapter XVIII. Fans and Ventilators . . 110 

133. Selecting a fan. 134. The construction of the fan in common 
use. 135. Ventilator. 



10 CONTENTS 

PART V. WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL 
Chapter XIX. Pumps and Water Filters . . 112 

136. Suction pumps. 137. Care of pumps. 138. Force pumps. 
139. Compressed-air pumps. 140. Water filters. 

Chapter-XX. Pressure Tanks; Plumbing Fixtures 117 

141. Pressure tanks. 142. Construction of the pressure tank. 
143. Care of pressure tanks. 144. Hot-water kitchen tank. 
145. Instantaneous water heaters. 146. Heaters for tanks. 147. 
The elevated water tank. 148. Faucets. 149. Valves. 150. Over- 
flows. 151. Traps for bath tubs and basins. 

Chapter XXL Cesspools, Septic Tanks and City 

Sewer Systems 124 

152. Releative value of cesspool and septic tank. 153. Construc- 
tion of the septi(H;ank. 154. The size of tank. 155. Disposal of 
waste in cities. 

Chapter XXII. Water Closets . . . . . 128 

156. Construction of water closets. 157. Siphoning the trap. 158. 
The flushing tank. 159. Repairing the flushing tank. 

PART VI. LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT 
Chapter XXIII. Washing Machines . . . 132 

160. Kinds of washing machines. 161. Suction machines. 162. 
Cylinder washers. 163. Rotary washers. 164. Machine with 
an oscillating washing device. 165. Oscillating washers. 166. 
Locomotive washer. 167. Centrifugal washer. 168. Care of 
washers. 

Chapter XXIV. Wringers 138 

169. Roller wringer. 170. Care of wringers. 171. Centrifugal 
wringer or drier. 172. Care of the machine. 173. Combination 
washer and wringer. 



CONTENTS 11 

Chapter XXV. Mangles and Irons . . .141 

174. Construction of mangles. 175. Cold mangles. 176. Heated 
mangles. 177. Care and use of mangles. 178, Flat, or sadirons. 
179. Charcoal irons. 180, Electric irons, 181, Gas irons, 182. 
Acetylene irons. 183. Alcohol irons, 184, Gasoline irons. 

PART VII. HOUSE-CLEANING EQUIPMENT 

Chapter XXVI. Vacuum Cleaners and Cleaning 

Tools 147 

185, Principle upon which vacuum cleaners work. 186. Different 
kinds of vacuum cleaners. 187. Nozzle of vacuum cleaner. 188. 
Cautions in using vacuum cleaners, 189, Difference between hand 
and power cleaners. 190, Carpet sweeper, 191. Mop wringers, 

PART VIII. DEVICES FOR PREPARATION AND 
CONSERVATION OF FOOD 

Chapter XXVII. Pots, Pans and Other Devices 155 

192. Materials from which utensils are made. 193. Aluminum 
alloy. 194. Cast-iron utensils. 195. Earthenware. 196. Aluminum 
and graniteware. 197. Mixing spoons. 

Chapter XXVIII. Parers, Seeders, Grinders, 

Slicers, Etc 159 

198. Fruit and vegetable parers and knives. 199. Parers which 
grate off skins. 200. Seeders and Stoners. 201. Cherry stoner, 
202. Grinders, 203, Choppers or meat grinders, 204, Choppers, 
205. Slicers. 206, Lard and fruit presses, sausage stuffers. 

Chapter XXIX. Mixers, Beaters and Churns; 

Coffee Pots . . . . . . 165 

207. Use of mixers, beaters and churns. 208. Care of these de- 
vices. 209. Freezers. 210. Care of freezers. 211. Churns. 212. 
Drip coffee pots. 213. Percolator coffee pots. 



12 CONTENTS 

Chapter XXX. Dish-Washers, Canners and 

Dryers 170 

214. Dish dryer. 215. Cleaning silver. 216. Canners, 217. 
"Water seal. 218. Pressure canners. 219. Use of the canner. 
220. Dryers. 221. Care of dryers. 

Chapter XXXI. Separators and Emulsifiers . 178 

222. Cream separators. 223. Different types of separators. 224. 
Washing the machine. 225. Oiling. 226. Whey separator. 227. 
Emulsifier. 

PART IX. SUNDRY DEVICES 

Chapter XXXII. Dumbwaiters and Other House 

Furnishings 183 

228. Dumbwaiters and window adjustments. 229. Check valves. 
230. Door fastener. 231. Window shades. 232. Hinges. 233. 
Sliding doors. 

Chapter XXXIII. Sewing Machines . . . 186 

234. Different types of sewing machines. 235. Lock-stitch sewing 
machine. 236. Feed plate. 237. Bobbins. 238. Shuttle bob- 
bins. 239. Chain-stitch machine. 240. Cautions for all ma- 
chines. 241. General instructions. 

Chapter XXXIV. Automobiles . . , . . 192 

242. Starting the motor. 243. Driving the automobile. 244. 
Care of car. 

Chapter XXXV. Lawn Mowers; Incubators . 195 

245. Operation and care of lawn mowers. 246. Storing mowers. 
247. Scissors and shears. 248. Principles upon which incubator 
works. 249. The body of the incubator. 250. Incubators heated 
by a lamp. 251. The wick. 252. Thermostat. 253. The ther- 
mometer. 254. Operation of incubator. 255. Egg tester. 



CONTENTS 13 

Chapter XXXVI. Typewriters .... 202 

256. Construction of typewriter, 257. Special features of type- 
writer. 258, Interchangeable-type typewriters. 259. Care of 
typewriters. 260. The hectograph. 261. Mimeograph and 
multigraph. 

PART X. MOTORS, FUELS AND GAS PLANTS 
Chapter XXXVIL Treadles and Water Motors 209 

262. Definition of motor. 263. The treadle. 264, Water mo- 
tors. 265. Selecting a water motor. 266. Two types of water 
motors. 

Chapter XXXVIIL Engines; Motors and Bat- 
teries; Fuels . . . . . . 212 

267. Gasoline engines. 268, Figuring speed of pulleys. 269. 
Operating the engine, 270, Points in caring for engine. 271, 
Generating electricity for homes, 272. Batteries, 273, Liquid 
batteries, 274, A dry-cell battery, 275, Storage batteries, 276. 
Some uses for electric motors, 277. Definition tables. 

Chapter XXXIX. Gas Plants 220 

278, Gasoline gas plants, 279, Acetylene-gas plant, 280. Direc- 
tions for operating acetylene plant, 281, Cautions to be observed 
in using acetylene gas. 282. Compressed gases and oils. 

PART XL MEASURING DEVICES 
Chapter XL. Scales for Weighing .... 225 

283, Equal-arm balances, 284. Unequal-arm balances. 285. Spring 
scales. 

Chapter XLI. Devices for Measuring Volume . 227 

286. Graduate and measuring cup. 287. Tablespoons, 288. Tea- 
spoons. 289. Standard measuring spoons. 290. Liquid and cook- 
ing measures. 291. Dry measures. 292, Cubic, square and linear 
measures. 



14 CONTENTS 

Chapter XLII. Gas, Water and Electric Meters 230 

293. Different kinds of meters. 294. Construction of a gas meter. 
295. Reading the gas meter. 296. Water meters. 297. Prepay- 
ment meters. 298. The electric meter. 

Chapter XLIII. Thermometers and Thermostats 233 

299. Mercury thermometers. 300. Oven thermometer. 301. Max- 
imum thermometers. 302. Thermostats. 

Chapter XLIV. Hydrometers and Barometers . 237 

303. Hydrometer. 304. Hygroscopes. 305. Barometers. 






PARTI 

m 

Cooking Stoves 

CHAPTER I 
Wood and Coal Stoves 

A brief explanation of stoves is given in this chapter to help 
the woman with a new stove or with an old one which she does 
not understand so that she may manage it without wasting 
fuel and nervous energy. 




Fig. 1. Cross-section of cooking stove. 

Cooking stoves (Fig. 1) were invented as a convenient 
means for holding pots and pans in close proximity to the fire. 
They include a device for regulating the supply of air to the 
burning fuel. 

2 — Nov. 22. 



16 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

],. Air Supply for Fire. A proper amount of air must be 
supplied to the fuel to produce a hot fire. A smoky or yellow 
flame indicates a lack of sufficient air to produce complete 
combustion of the fuel. Smoke is unburnt fuel. A smoky 
fire does not produce as much heat as one which burns with a 
blue or almost colorless flame. It is usually not the fault of 
the fuel, but the way it is being used that causes a smoky fire. 

2. The Grate. Cooking stoves may be constructed for 
burning either wood or coal. In both cases, the operation is 

similar, except that more air should be 

passing thru the stove while wood is 

being burnt. For burning coal, the 

grate should be less open in order to 

prevent the coal from falling thru.. 

Some modern stoves are made with 

Fig. 1-a. Grate. ^Quhle grates. These may be turned 

so that the more open part of them is used for supporting 

the wood, and the less open part for coal. 

These grates are usually reversed by a stove shaker. (Fig. 
1-a shows a detailed drawing of a grate.) The housekeeper 
must understand how this is done in order to avoid reversing 
them when she shakes down the ashes. Two difficulties arise 
in reversing the grate when the stove is filled with fuel. The 
coal may be wasted by falling thru the part intended for 
wood, or pieces of fuel may fall between the parts so that they 
cannot be moved. When this happens, it is best to let the 
fire go out, take out the fuel, adjust the grates as they should 
be and rebuild the fire. 

3. Drafts or Dampers. There are from three to six 
dampers on a stove (Figs. 1 and 2), as follows: 




WOOD AND COAL STOVES 



17 



1) The draft below the fire box, found on all stoves, is to let 
in air to the burning fire. 

2) The draft above the fire box, not found on all stoves, 
when slightly opened, lets in air which completes the com- 
bustion of the gases arising from the top of the fire. When 
opened too wide, it checks the burning of the fire. 

3) The oven damper, found on all 
cook stoves, is placed at the point 
where the flame naturally enters 
the stove pipe. When this damper 
is closed, the flame must go around 
the oven instead of directly up the 
chimney. 

To see the oven damper, take off 
the lid nearest the stove pipe and 
watch the direction of the flame. 
The handle to the oven damper may 
be at the side of the pipe on top of 
the stove or at the front of the stove under the top near the 
reservoir. Closing this damper causes the hot gases from 
the fire to go back over the top of the stove down behind 
the oven, turn under the oven and come up the chimney. 
Good stoves are constructed so that the hot gases come in 
contact with every part of the oven. This makes a longer 
journey for the gases, but, if the drafts in the front of the 
stove and chimney are properly adjusted, the gases will 
make the circuit without forming soot. 

4) A damper in the stove pipe (Fig. 2) for letting air from 
the room into the pipe serves to check the burning of the fire 
by taking the place of the draft thru the stove. 




Fig. 2. Drafts and damp- 
ers in stove-pipe. 



X8 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

5) A damper, or shutter, found in the pipe or chimney of 
most stoves, when closed, checks the draft up the chimney, 
and, when open, lets it pass freely. 

6) The reservoir damper, found on some stoves having 
reservoirs, lets the hot gases pass next to the reservoir when 
open and prevents this when closed. 

4. Starting the Fire. If the stove has a reversible 
grate, see that it is adjusted to suit the fuel before building 
the fire; then adjust the drafts. Open the draft below the 
fire box, the oven damper, and the shutter in the chimney; 
close the draft above the fire box, and the draft which lets air 
from the room into the pipe, so that the air may pass up thru 
the fire box and directly up the chimney. Some chimneys 
produce such strong drafts that the shutter in the chimney 
has to be kept closed most of the time, even when starting the 
fire. After the fuel has become ignited, the draft below the 
fire may be partly closed so that it burns less rapidly. If the 
fire is to be used for heating water or food on top of the stove, 
it is now ready for use. If it is still burning too rapidly, the 
draft may be entirely closed, or the shutter in the chimney 
partly closed. If at any time the stove smokes, the shutter 
or drafts above the fire may be closed too much and should be 
opened enough to let all the smoke pass. Adding too much 
fuel at one time and not spreading it in a thin layer over the 
entire surface of the fire may cause the stove to smoke. 

5. Keeping a Fire. If, after a fire has been used, it is 
wanted for use later, close the draft below the fire box, open 
the one above the fire box, or, if there chances to be no draft 
here, tilt the lids on the stove to let in the air; close the shut- 
ter in the chimney and open the draft in the pipe that lets in 



WOOD AND COAL STOVES 19 

air from the room. With the drafts so adjusted, the fire 
should keep a long time, as it will burn very slowly. 

6. Heating the Oven. When baking is to be done, wait 
until the fire is well started ; then close the oven damper. The 
eveness of heat in the oven depends upon the even distribu- 
tion of the hot gases below and on the sides of it. This is pro- 
vided for in the manufacture of the stove itself. The heat in 
the oven may be regulated by the intensity of the heat from 
the fire as well as by the damper. Whenever a cooler oven is 
wanted, the flame may be permitted to go directly up the 
chimney. Since hot air is always seeking a higher level than 
cold air, opening the oven door cools the oven, but it will not 
prevent food set on the bottom of the oven from burning on 
the bottom. In a closed oven, the greatest degree of heat is 
at the top, excepting sometimes the surface of the bottom of 
the oven. Many stoves require the placing of a thin grating 
on the bottom of the oven to prevent food from burning on 
the bottom. If food does not brown sufficiently on the bot- 
tom, remove the grating so that the dish comes in closer con- 
tact with the heating unit. 

The insulation of the oven door helps to hold heat in the 
oven, but the amount lost here is so small that many house- 
keepers prefer the convenience of the glass door, which, in 
turn, saves heat by doing away with the necessity of opening 
the oven door to watch the cooking food. 

Some housewives adjust the dampers for heating the oven 
and then never change them. They heat the kitchen in sum- 
mer more than is necessary and use more fuel than they need 
for cooking. It has been estimated that where the careful 
manager of a stove uses one pound of fuel, the careless man- 
ager uses three and a half pounds. 



20 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

One experiment station estimated that the household coal 
range is used on an average of six hours a day, and, if used 
carefully, seven pounds of coal is consumed. Careless man- 
agement, then, makes the waste of coal quite an item in the 
course of a year, as it is not unusual for the careless manager 
to use twenty-four pounds of coal per six-hour day. 

There is always some soot formed, even in the best-man- 
aged stoves, and the flame often carries ashes with it. These 
in time fill the narrow space about the oven and cut off or 
check the passage of the hot gases about the oven. When 
this happens and the oven damper is closed, the stove will 
smoke and not bake well. No stove should be allowed to get 
in this condition. The housewife can watch the accumula- 
tion of ashes in the stove and remove them before they be- 
come one-fourth inch thick. If this is not done, the oven will 
not heat well and some parts may be considerably cooler than 
others. 

7. Ashes. Ashes allowed to accumulate in the fire box 
will cause the lining of the stove to burn out. Ashes will also 
interfere with the heating of the rest of the stove. To 
lengthen the life of a stove, keep the ash pan empty. If a full 
pan of ashes becomes hot, it will keep the grate of the stove so 
hot that it will warp and burn out, and sometimes cause 
the oven to warp. 

If a housewife tries to build a fresh fire in a stove with a full 
ash pan, she will have to wait for the ashes to become heated 
thru before she can get satisfactory use of the oven. She will 
be unable to regulate the temperature of the oven if it be- 
comes too hot. It is a great waste of fuel to heat a large pan 
full of ashes. 



WOOD AND COAL STOVES 



21 




Fig. 3. Ash chute. 



22 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

8. Ash Chutes. In some modern houses, there are ash 
chutes which carry the ashes directly from the kitchen stove 
to a receptacle in the basement (Fig. 3). These have to be 
installed with care. If there is a draft of air which cannot be 
regulated from the basement up thru the fire box, the fire will 
burn too fast. There should be a damper to regulate drafts 
here. An ash chute saves much dirt in "the kitchen. 



CHAPTER II 
Gas Stoves 

The gas stove is the simplest stove made. It consists of a 
burner or burners of different shapes mounted on a suitable 
frame. The best example of a gas burner is a pipe with holes 
punched in it, where the gas flows out and is set on fire. This 
pipe may be coiled into a circle and make a round burner, or 
the holes may all come at the end, which is arranged to spread 
the gas into a disc shape. 

9. Burners. Stoves are usually made with different 
sizes of burners. One manufacturer states that the gas 
stoves made by his firm consume per top burner per hour 
fourteen to eighteen feet of gas, and the oven burners con- 
sume eighteen to twenty feet when the gas is turned on full. 
Simmerers consume much less than this. 

10. Simmerers. Every gas range should have a sim- 
merer on it. This is a small burner, usually about an inch in 
diameter. After a large kettle full of food has been heated to 
boiling, this burner may keep it simmering for hours, using 
very little gas. This burner will keep small kettles of food 
boiling. 

11. Air Mixer. Gas escaping from any pipe will burn, 
but it will burn with a yellow flame. To make gas burn with 
a blue flame — ^that is, to secure complete combustion — air 
must be mixed with it. This is done in the air mixer (Fig. 4). 
The blue flame is desirable for cooking because it is hotter 
than the yellow flame and does not blacken the cooking uten- 
sils. 



24 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



Gas passes thru the air mixer before entering the burner. 
Sometimes the air inlet is only a hole put in the under side of 
the pipe. The opening for entrance of air is shielded so that 
the gas will not escape from the mixer, but will go on into the 
burner. A gas pipe looks about half an inch in diameter, but 
the stream of gas which is allowed to flow into the burner is 

very small, in some cases being about 
the diameter of a darning needle. 
The opening for air is so large, that 
a person's finger may be put into it. 
Too much air interferes with the 
burning of the gas; in fact, there can 
be so much air mixed with gas that it 
will not burn. The air mixer regu- 
lates the amount of air which flows 
into the pipe. Once this is adjusted 
for the kind of gas to be used, it sel- 
dom needs to be changed. The air 
shutter has to be changed, however, 
if the gas pressure varies markedly from time to time. Re- 
adjustment may be required if the stove is moved and con- 
nected with a different supply of gas. When adjusting the 
mixer for high pressure, artificial or natural gas, close the 
shutter until the flame will not blow away from the cone, but 
will burn with a blue, almost colorless, flame. 

12. Regulating the Gas. The amount of gas which 
passes into the stove is also regulated, first, by adjustment of 
the size of the small opening thru which the gas must flow. 
Once this is adjusted, it does not need to be changed so long as 
the gas comes from the same source. Second, the flow of gas 




Fig. 4. Part of gas stove 
showing air mixers. 



GAS STOVES 25 

is regulated by the lever valve. As the valve is turned, the 
flow of gas is restricted so that it flows less swiftly. The size 
of the stream of gas going into the stove always looks the same 
regardless of its speed. When the rate is not so fast, the fire 
burns lower because less gas comes to it during every unit of 
time. 

13. Lighting the Stove. Light the top burners by first 
striking a match, and then turning on the burner so that 
there will be an unrestricted 
flow of gas. Count three be- 
fore applying the match. This 
gives time for the burner to fill 
with gas. If the match goes 
out, shut off the gas and try 
again. If it burns back into 
the air hole, also turn off the 
gas and begin again. Proba- 
bly the match was applied too ^^«- ^- ^^^^""^^ ^^^ ^*°^^- 
soon. Gas stoves get out of order because of carelessness 
in lighting them. The force of the explosions caused in 
burning back loosens connections and may disturb the adjust- 
ment of the mixer and valve. 

14. Cleaning the Stove. Housekeepers should keep 
their gas stoves clean. Dirt interferes with the passage of the 
gas thru the burners. Gas stoves should be cleaned thoroly 
once a month. Scrub the burners with a stiff brush (Fig. 5), 
and wash all greasy parts with soap and water. If the holes 
should be clogged, remove the stoppage with a vdre hair-pin 
(Fig. 6). Clean the drip sheet every day, or as often as it be- 
comes soiled. (Fig. 4.) 




26 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

15. Accidents with Gas Stove. Accidents with gas 
stoves are the result of mismanagement. The odor of gas in a 
room indicates a leak in the gas fixtures, such as stoves or 
pipes. When such an odor is noticed, open windows and ex- 
tinguish all fires in the room or building. Next search for the 
leak. It may be due to an open valve. See that these are all 
shut tight. If no valves are open, send for a plumber who 
looks after gas fixtures. Leave the windows open and do not 

carry lighted matches or 

lamps into the room until 

the leak has been stopped. 

Many accidents happen 

at the time the oven is 

being lighted. Sometimes 

gas escapes into a closed 

oven, so that its odor is 

not noticed in the kitchen. 

This gas catches fire or ex- 
FIG. 6. Cleaning burner of gas stove. ^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ 

burner is lighted, blowing the oven door open or off the 
hinges, flashing out of the oven, and burning any person near 
the stove. To avoid such accidents, always open the oven 
and broiler doors a few minutes before lighting the oven. 
Fig. 7 shows construction of gas-stove oven. If any odor 
of gas is noticed on opening the doors, fan this out. Leave 
the oven and broiler doors open a while after extinguishing 
the fire and removing the cooked food. Gas may get into 
the oven at the time the flame is extinguished. 

16. Pilot Light. Most stoves are constructed so that 
there is a pilot light for the oven. Always use it when light- 




GAS STOVES 



27 




ing the oven. It is put there for the safety of those using the 

stove. There is no need for alarm when a pilot burns back, 

no matter how much noise it makes, since so little gas flows 

thru the opening. One of 

the functions of a pilot 

light is to prevent people 

from being burnt in case of 

an explosion in the oven. 

For this reason, they 

should be at the side of 

the stove. 

If the pilot burns back, 

close it; wait a minute, and 

then try lighting it again. 

The regular burners of the 

stove should not burn back 

if properly lighted by the 

pilot. Be careful to see that every part of the oven burner 

becomes lighted. Turn 
the burners on full 
while lighting them. 
After they are once 
lighted, turn them as 
Fig. 8. Pilot light for gas stove. low as desired. 

17. Pilot for Top Burners. A pilot made for top burn- 
ers (Fig. 8) burns continuously with a very tiny flame. Its 
purpose is to save gas, patience, dirt and matches. The 
saving comes because the housekeeper can so easily re-light 
the burners that she will turn them out whenever she is not 
needing the fire. Sometimes when the gas pressure is low. 



Fig. 7. Gas ovens. 




28 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 




the pilot light will go out. It can be re-lighted by pressing 
the valve as for lighting the burners and touching a match to 
it. If the pilot goes out, the odor of gas will be noticed in the 
kitchen until it is re-lighted. 

18. Gas-Stove Lighter. There are two kinds of gas- 
stove lighters. These differ from the pilot in that they do 

not burn constantly. One 
of these is so constructed 
that it is first necessary to 
apply a match to any one of 
the top burners. The other 
burners can then be lighted 
by opening the valve in the 
regular manner and press- 
ing down on the lighter 
knob. As soon as pressure on the lighter knob is removed, 
the gas supply to the lighter is automatically cut off 
(Fig. 9). The other lighter is made of metal which gives 
sparks easily when subjected to friction. The lighter is held 
over the stove, the gas turned on and the friction produced 
by rubbing one part of the lighter across the other, making a 
spark which ignites the gas. 

19. Amount of Gas Used. It is claimed that 1,000 feet 
of illuminating gas produce as much heat as 50 or 60 pounds 
of anthracite coal or 4-1/2 gallons of kerosene oil. (See table 
on page 219.) 

The difference in gas bills, due to management of gas stoves, 
is considerable. It is very easy for one woman to use three 
times as much gas as another in doing the same amount of 



Fig. 9. Top view of gas stove, 
showing lighter. 




GAS STOVES 29 

work. Some women do not realize when they are wasting 
gas. 

Water boils in an uncovered vessel at 212 degrees Fahren- 
heit, and no amount of heat applied to it will make it any hot- 
ter. When a pot of food has reached the boiling point, a 
smaller flame will keep it boiling. Turn the gas as low as it 
may be safely turned and still 
keep the pot boiling, and the 
food will cook as rapidly as 
when the gas is turned on full. fig. 10. Single top burner 

Gas is a safe fuel in most ^^^ valve, 

hands; it saves the housekeeper much labor because it makes 
so little dirt. When properly managed, it is the cheapest 
fuel to be had at the present time. 

20. Cold-Process Gasoline Gas Stoves. Cold-process 
gasoline stoves require a burner fitted with valves in which 

the gas orifice can be en- 
larged or diminished. The 
Fig. 10-a. Oven burner. best of these for using cold- 

process gasoline gas can be adjusted by a turn of the finger. 

The adjustment of the valve is to compensate for the neg- 
lect upon the part of users of these plants. Very frequently 
they will allow the supply of gasoline in the carburetor to run 
nearly out before they replenish it, in which case the gas 
comes to the burners in a thinner quality, and in order to pro- 
vide the same volume of heat, it is necessary to adjust the 
burner valves and throw a larger stream of gas into the 
burner. They are sometimes fitted with burners having side- 
sawed caps (Figs. 10 and 10-a). These seem to expose the 
burning gas to the air in a way to make it burn better than in 



30 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

other burners built for gas forced into them by greater pres- 
sure than is this gas. The opening for air must be adjusted 
from time to time so as to keep the proportion of gas and air 
such that it will produce a blue flame. 

21. Acetylene Stoves. Stoves for the burning of acety- 
lene are similar in construction to gas stoves. Tho acetylene 
furnishes a satisfactory and economical light, it is not an 
economical fuel when compared with kerosene, gas, wood or 
coal. For this reason, it is not much used. It requires two 
and three-tenths units of acetylene gas to equal one unit of 
natural gas for heating. 



CHAPTER III 
Oil Stoves 

22. Purpose of Oil Stoves. Oil stoves are designed for 
the comfort of the woman who cannot have a gas or an elec- 
tric stove. They consist of tank, feed pipe and burners (Figs. 
11-a and 11-&). As they are portable, they can be moved to a 
summer kitchen or sheltered back porch on hot summer days. 

Oil stoves are not fool-proof and 
should never be used by those who 
are afraid of them and who do not 
understand them. Manufacturers 
have done much to make accidents 
avoidable, and they send detailed 
instructions with each stove. These 
should be followed exactly. 

23. Mechanical Parts of Kero- 
sene Stove. The kerosene oil stove 
consists of a tank of oil with a pipe 
leading to a hollow ring-like cup be- 
low the burner (A, Fig. 11). When 
the burner is lighted, the oil passes 
down this pipe into the ring, where 
it becomes heated and is vaporized. 
As the vapor rises, it is mixed with 
air and burns with a blue flame. The small holes in the 
chimney of the burner and at the base of the burner are to 
admit air. They must be kept open. 

3 




J 



Fig. 11. Parts of oil stove 
burner. 



32 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



If the burner is dirty or not properly adjusted, the right 
amount of air may not reach the vaporized oil to mix with it 
and the stove will burn with a yellow flame, making soot and 
smoke. 




<yi^ 



Fig, 11-a. Large oil stove with oven. 



24. The Burner. The burner consists of a chimney, a 
wick or ring of asbestos, a valve or a lever, and a ring-like cup 
at the base of the burner. There are three distinct types of 
burners known as long chimney, short chimney and wickless. 



OIL STOVES 



33 



The wickless stoves are equipped with a ring of asbestos 
which serves the purpose of a wick. 

The burners on one oil stove are usually all alike. The 
burners on various makes dif- 
fer. Those in which the flame 
comes nearest the kettle or 
cooking food produce the most 
heat for cooking (Fig. 12). 
Those with the blaze farther 
away from the food seem to be 





Fig. 11-6. Oil stove with- 
out oven. 



Fig. 12. Oil stove burner, show- 
ing fire close to utensil. 



easier for the excitable woman to manage (Fig. 13). 

25. The Chimney. Kerosene stoves are furnished with 
metal chimneys. A device for mixing air with the burning 
fuel forms a part of short chimneys (B, Fig. 11). The chim- 
ney must set on the burner properly, or the stove will not 
burn with a blue flame. After lighting a burner, give the 
chimney a turn or two to make sure that it is in place. There 
is usually a groove into which it fits. 

26. Lighting the Stove. When lighting a stove, turn 
the valve which permits the oil to flow (C, Fig. 11) into the 



34 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 




cup below the burner, or lower the lighter into the oil. Wait 
a moment, if need be, for the wick or ring to become saturated 
with oil. Raise the chimney and touch the lighted match to 
the ring or wick at several places. (Fig. 14, and Fig. 11, also, 

show the position of the chimney 
and wick for lighting.) Lower the 
chimney, seeing that it fits back into 
place. Adjust the wick to the proper 
height to get a blue flame (Fig. 15). 
Do not turn very high at first, for, while 
the stove is becoming heated, the flame 
burns higher and higher, and may begin 
to smoke. 

27. Management of the Flame. 

Turn the flame no higher than is 
Fig. 13. Burner for oil needed to keep the pot boiling. Some 
^^^'^^- stoves do not burn well when turned 

very low. Do not have the flame 
so high or so low that it gives off 
smoke or gas. When turning out 
the fire, be sure to turn the wick 
clear down, or turn the valve or lever 
(Fig. 12) to the point indicated as 
out on stoves which lift the ring above 
the oil. If this precaution is not 
taken, most stoves leak oil when not 
in use, because the wick or rings carry 
oil to the upper part of the burner 
where it spreads over the stove. i . . ig mg oi s ove. 

28. Adjustment and Care of the Stove. To prevent 




OIL STOVES 35 

trouble with uneven flames, set the stove perfectly level, par- 
ticularly the wickless one. Keep the tank filled, but not too 
full. Stoves are made so that it is difficult to fill them too 
full. An oil stove cannot explode unless gas has formed in 
some part, like the tank, and becomes ignited by heat or a 
spark. Gas is more likely to col- 
lect in the tank when it is almost '^ 
empty. o ^"^ ^^.i:;--.,_./* ■ 

When the tank is removed for - 

filling, any gas forming passes out c 
into the room and mixes with so 
much air that it is harmless. If it * 

is filled before the oil burns out of __j 

the pipe above the level of the 
burners, no gas will be formed. '^ 

Stoves must be kept clean. A /' 

clean stove means one with a clean ' •*"- -"---'-" 

framework, clean burners, clean 
1 . , -111 Fig. 15. Different types of 

chimney, clean oil and a clean flames. 

wick or ring. 

If a stove has not been in use for some time, replace the old 

wick with a fresh one (Fig. 16). Clean the stove by wiping 

off all the parts with a cloth. Keep the charred edges of the 

wick trimmed . level. The wick with a crust of char on top 

does not burn well. Use a match or small stick in removing 

the char. Light the wick to see if it is even. If any point 

burns with a yellow flame, trim this place until the wick burns 

even. The tank can easily and quickly be lifted off modern 

oil stoves. Do not re-fill near a lighted stove. 

29. When the Stove Gives Trouble. In case the stove 



36 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



begins to blaze and cannot be controlled by the valves, re- 
move the tank and carry it to some safe place where the kero- 
sene in it cannot catch fire. When this is done, there is less 
than a pint of oil left in most stoves, and this will soon burn 
out without doing much harm, if clothing and water are kept 

away from the blaze. Open win- 
! dows and doors to let out gases 

and smoke. If necessary, move the 
stove away from walls or furniture. 
Do not attempt to smother out the 
flame. There is too much danger 
of clothing catching fire when this 
is done. It is far safer to let the 
small amount of oil left in the stove 
burn up. Oil stoves cannot explode 
when the tank is removed. 

As soon as the oil has burnt out 
of the pipes and the wicks are 
Inserting new burning with a dull glow, extinguish 
the smoldering fire on the wicks by 
patting them with the blade of a knife or a piece of woolen 
cloth. 

If a burner has been blazing beyond control, remove the 
chimney. Brush out any soot which has formed. Examine 
the burner, taking it apart, if possible. Blazing may come 
from wicks not fitting, or from their getting so short that the 
screw on the lever fails to move them up or down. The ring 
in wickless stoves may not be thick enough, or they may have 
slipped out of place, or become broken. Replace with new 
wicks or rings. 




Fig. 16. 
wick. 



OIL STOVES 



37 




Notice if any part of the burner shows evidence of 
melting. If it does, do not use this burner until inspected 
and mended by an expert. If the lever has become worn so 
that it fails to work, it must be replaced or a new burner put 
on the stove. 

30. Construction of Gasoline Stoves. The gasoline 
stoves consist of a burner and an oil tank connected by a pipe 
(Fig. 17). The tank is elevated for 
the purpose of forcing the gasoline 
into the burner. The pipe may be 
any length. The danger from a gaso- 
line stove comes from the fact that 
gasoline vaporizes at a low tempera- 
ture. If the tank becomes heated, 
producing gas, and then becomes 
mixed with the proper proportion of 
air, it may explode if it comes in 
contact with a spark. (Fig. 17-a is 
an illustration of the cross-section of 
the Red Star gasoline or vapor stove. 
See page 38.) 

From the pipe to the burner is a 
very small opening, so that a stream of gasoline little larger 
than the diameter of a needle flows into the burner proper, 
when the valve is open. The valve may be partly closed so 
that the stream will not flow so fast. 

Below the burner is a small cup. When the stove is cold, 
the gasoline flowing into the burner collects here, 

31. To Light the Stove. The way to light the stove is 
to turn on the gasoline until it fills the cup below the burner. 




Fig. 17. Simple gasoline 
burner. 



38 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



When this is full, close the valve. Set this gasoline on fire. 
As it burns, it will heat the burner. 

The burner is heated so that when more gasoline is turned 
on, this heat will change the gasoline to gas. If the burner is 
not hot enough to do this, the gasoline flowing from the pipe 

will flow down into the 
HksB-^Mmi^ cup and the stove will 
burn with a smoky flame 
which becomes higher and 
higher and looks very 
alarming. 

When this happens, the 
valve should be closed, 
and the fire permitted to 
burn ^11 the gasoline which 
has collected in the cup. 
This may be sufficient to 
heat the burner. Test 
after the fire has gone out, 
by lighting a match, turn- 
ing on the gasoline and 
touching the lighted match 
to the burner. If all right, 
it will burn with a blue flame; if not, it will burn with a 
yellow flame. If the yellow flame is noticed, turn out the fire 
by closing the valve, and let the burner get cold before at- 
tempting again to light it. See that the burner has not be- 
come clogged with soot or dirt. Then proceed to re-light the 
stove. 




Fig. 17-a, Cross-section of gasoline 
stove showing burner. 



Air must be mixed with the gasoline to make it burn with a 



OIL STOVES 39 

blue flame. The air enters the burner through the same tube 
that the gasoline flows into the cups when the burner is cold. 
In the burner are small holes for the escape of the gas mixed 
with air, and here the blue flame should appear, and nowhere 
else. If it appears elsewhere, the burner is not working prop- 
erly. Sometimes the gas ignites at the point where the air is 
mixed with it. The fire should then be turned out and the 
stove re-lighted immediately. 

If the little holes where the flames should be, or if any other 
part of the stove is clogged with soot, it will not burn as it 
should. It must be cleaned. A dirty gasoline stove is dan- 
gerous. 

32. Filling the Gasoline Stove. Never get oil on the 
tank or any part of the stove while filling it. If oil is spilled, 
wipe it up before igniting the stove. Do not fill the tank 
when the stove is lighted or when there is a fire anywhere near 
the tank. If the fire has been burning, close all the valves 
and wait until it goes out before opening the tank. Close the 
valve from tank to pipe before filling. Fill the tank and cover 
it before lighting the stove again. 

Keep the tank filled. As soon as the indicator, which is 
attached to a cork which floats on top of the gasoline, shows 
that the oil is low, turn out the fire and refill the tank. Do 
not fill the tank to overflowing. Gases from the stove can 
only get into the tank when it is empty and while there is gas- 
oline in the pipe to feed the stove. Gasoline gas is very in- 
flammable and will cause an explosion if it becomes ignited. 
The tanks from gasoline stoves cannot be removed, as all the 
joints must be tight to prevent the escape of gasoline fumes 
as well as the oil itself. The opening to the tank must never 



40 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

be left uncovered, except for the few minutes while the tank 
is being filled. The greatest care is required in using a gaso- 
line stove; in fact, they are so dangerous, that they should not 
be highly recommended for household use. The description 
and care of them are given here because some persons persist 
in using them when they desire a quick, hot fire in cases where 
fuel gas is not available. 

33. When a Burner Blazes and Cannot Be Controlled. 
When a gasoline stove burner blazes and cannot be controlled, 
first close the valve leading from the tank into the pipe. 
There will then be little gasoline to burn, and no gases can 
get back into the tank. 

Keep clothing and water away from the hlaze. Remember that 
the stove is set on a metal frame which is not inflammable. 
Shield walls and other objects so that the burner may blaze 
high without doing damage. Clothing catches fire easily, 
but the metal stove will not be consumed. 

If the valves are shut, the blaze will cease when the gasoline 
has burnt out of the burner and pipe. If the gasoline contin- 
ues to flow out of the burner in spite of turning the valve and 
there is a danger of its spreading to the floor or table, set a 
shallow pan under the stove to catch the gasoline. It can 
burn in this way with considerable safety. Do not attempt 
to carry a burning stove. Simply protect floor, walls and fur- 
niture from catching fire, and let the gasoline burn. 

34. Changing Fuel in Vapor Stoves. There are some 
stoves which are interchangeable, in that they may be ad- 
justed to burn kerosene, gasoline or distillate. These are of 
the type called "vapor" because they change the oil to gas be- 
fore it is ignited. A change from one kind of fuel to another 



OIL STOVES 41 

should never be made without thoroly cleaning the stove and 
adjusting it to the fuel that is to be used. 

35. Operation of Vapor Stoves. It is safest to use 
kerosene in these stoves. Distillate is a name given to a dif- 
ferent mineral oil product from kerosene or gasoline. To 
work well, these burners must be kept clean. (Fig. 17-a.) 

The operation of the stove is simple. Put enough fuel, 
such as alcohol, into a burner to heat it hot enough to change 
the oil to be used to gas and ignite it. 

After the burner has heated for three or four minutes, turn 
on the fuel valve in the pipe which leads from the tank to the 
burner. The fuel will light from the burning alcohol already 
in the burner. Adjust the height of the flame by valve, 
which regulates the amount of fuel flowing into the burner. 

If anything boils over, put out the fire. Close the valve. 
Remove the parts of the burner. Clean and wipe them dry. 
Replace the parts of the burner, and, if not cool, turn on the 
fuel and light. If cool, heat as for first lighting, and turn on 
the fuel. 

Extinguish the fire by closing the valve which stops the 
flow of oil to the burner. 



CHAPTER IV 

Electric Stoves 

Electric stoves consist of frame, heating unit and switches 
to regulate the flow of current. Some are equipped with 
oven, thermometers and special utensils (Fig. 18). 




Fig. 18. Stove equipped with utensils. 

36. Heating Unit of Electric Stove. The heating unit 
consists of coils of wire or a plate of metal thru which the cur- 
rent flows, meeting resistance and producing heat. If the 



ELECTRIC STOVES 



43 



current flowed freely thru the wires, Httle heat would be gene- 
rated (Figs. 19 and 20). 

37. Wiring of Stoves. It is advocated that a separate 
circuit of heavy wire be put into all houses where current is 
used for purposes other than light- 
ing, to provide for cooking and power 
connections. 

Too heavy loading of wires with 
electric appliances causes the burning 
of fuses and sometimes damages the 
electric system. Find out how much 
current the wiring of the house will carry before attaching 
new devices. There is danger of fire if too much current is 
allowed to pass over a wire of too small size. 

38. Operation of Electric Stoves. Many stoves are 
equipped with a switch which permits different amounts of 




Fig. 19. Heating unit of 
electric stove. 



HEATING h'' ■! 
WITH MICA- ■ 
INSbLAIION 

SAFt-n FtSt I'LL * IN 
PORTION BRIIX- ^ 
< OVl ACTS 




i'U (J CAAINO 



Fig. 20. Heating unit of electric stove. 



current to pass thru the stove according to the way the device 
is set. At one point it gives low heat; another, medium, and 
a third, high heat, and, lastly, no heat. 
The cooking of food on an open burner should be started 



44 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

with high heat turned on so that the food may cook quickly. 
If a large amount of food is cooking, there will be so much 
radiation from the vessel that it may require all the current 
to keep it cooking. After food has started cooking, the switch 
can be turned to medium, and, later, to low, depending upon 
the amount of food and the temperature desired. Low will 
keep an ordinary pan of water boiling, once it has started. 

A few minutes before the food is to be removed from the 
open burner, the current should be turned off, as the heat in 
the stove will continue the cooking for several minutes. From 
tests of electric stoves, it appears that in most of them the 
food will continue to cook after the switch is turned off for 
about the same number of minutes that it requires to raise the 
heating unit to a temperature sufficient to boil water- in a 
small shallow pan. A housekeeper who is using electricity 
for cooking can soon learn how long the open burners and 
oven of her stove will keep food cooking after the current is 
turned off, and by putting this information to use, she can 
save many dollars in a year. 

39. Care of Electric Stoves. When thru with a stove, 
always turn off the current. Great care should be taken that 
the stoves do not become overheated. This shortens the life 
of the stove. 

Sudden cooling of the coils of wire caused by liquids spilUng 
on them, and corrosion of the wires caused by dampness, wear 
out stoves faster than need be. Do not wash or brush dirt 
from burners having open coils of wire. Burn all dirt from 
the burners. 

40. Utensils for Electric Stoves. The most economical 
use of electricity can be secured with utensils built around the 



ELECTRIC STOVES 



45 




heating units (Figs. 20 and 21), and the next most economical 
use with utensils built especially to fit the heating units. This 
means that there would be a heating unit for each utensil, or 
size of utensil, and the expense of equipment would be con- 
siderable. Also, more care would be needed in washing the 
utensils and in preventing ? 
them from becoming bent. 
Such facts must be consid- 
ered in choosing between 
stoves with special devices 
and those on which any pan 
may be set. After install- 
ing an electric stove, start 
with new utensils because 
they will not blacken on Fig. 21. Utensil with heating unit. 

an electric stove, and so can be washed with the other 
dishes. 

When ordinary household utensils are used, they should be 
of such shape that they stand flat, as they also should on a coal 
range. The most economical use of heat is secured when the 
area of heat is smaller than the area of the bottom of the ket- 
tle and is concentrated on the utensil. Care should be taken 
when stoves are installed, that they are properly grounded so 
that they cannot burn any one. A light bulb is attached to 
some stoves so that when the current is on the light burns, 
and when it is off, the light goes out. Such a light should be 
on all large stoves. 

41. Detachable Cooking Devices. Cooking and heat- 
ing devices should have larger wires than those for lighting 
alone. Consequently, the attachment of a heating device in 



46 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

a common light socket may cause burning out of fuses or other 
damage. 

One danger in using detachable electric devices occurs in 
not turning off the current when the stove is not in use, thus 
permitting it to become overheated. This shortens the life 
of the stove. 

Any tendency of a stove or other electric device to give 
people a shock when being used should be taken as a warning 
to have the device examined by an expert and the trouble 
corrected. Have the wires repaired as soon as the insulation 
breaks or burns off. Uninsulated wires, such as cables and 
cords, are unsafe. 



CHAPTER V 
Alcohol, Acetylene, and Canned Heat 

42. Alcohol Stoves. Alcohol stoves are made only in 
small sizes for light housekeeping. There are three general 
types of these — those which burn with a wick, those which 
generate gas, and those which permit the alcohol to burn off 
of the top surface of the container. 

Alcohol does not produce much smoke in burning, even 
when no provision is made for mixing air with it. The ordi- 
nary alcohol lamp, having a wick, may be used as a heating 
stove. Stoves with wicks draw the alcohol up by capillary 
attraction to the point of ignition, and the metal jacket about 
the wick prevents the fire burning back into the bowl con- 
taining the alcohol. The char from the top of the wick must 
be brushed off from time to time. No other care is needed 
for these stoves or lamps. Some of them are provided with 
devices for checking the burning of the alcohol in order to 
regulate the heat. This is desirable since a small flame of 
alcohol produces much heat. 

Extinguish the fire by covering the wick with a metal cup. 

43. Vapor Stoves. Alcohol vapor stoves which generate 
gas hold the alcohol in a tank slightly raised above the level of 
the burner. A pipe leads from this to the burner, where a 
small stream of alcohol is permitted to enter when the valve 
is open. 

When starting these stoves, the valve is first opened and 
enough alcohol allowed to flow out to fill a cup which is below 

4 



48 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

the burner. This generally holds about a tablespoonful of 
alcohol. When the cup is full, the valve is closed and the 
alcohol in the cup ignited. 

This heats the burner enough to vaporize the alcohol. 
When the burner is heated, open the valve and ignite the gas. 
If all the alcohol is not vaporized, the burner has not been 
heated hot enough. Close the valve until all the alcohol in 
the cup is burnt. 

44. Wickless Stoves. Wickless alcohol stoves are used 
commonly on chafing dishes. The burner of one type con- 
sists of a metal dish packed with a porous material which is 
non-inflammable, but a good conductor of liquids by capillary 
attraction, and the top is covered over by a wire screen. The 
alcohol is poured into the dish. The packing and screen pre- 
vent air from entering the bowl with sufficient rapidity to let 
the fire burn below the screen so the flame stays above it, 
burning off any alcohol which is conducted to the surface. 

The only possible way to control these stoves is by a device 
which can cut off air. One of these is a plate-like device with 
a handle. This fits over the stove and only that portion of 
the top burns which is exposed to air thru the hole in the 
plate. Making the hole larger or smaller makes the burning 
surface larger or smaller. 

To extinguish the fire, cover the entire top with a solid 
plate to cut off all air. 

45. Canned Heat. Canned heat is alcohol combined 
with other substances into a cake about the consistency of 
hard soap. The cover to the can is used to extinguish the 
fire. It should not be fitted into the top of the can until the 
flame has been extinguished for two or three seconds. Then 



ALCOHOL, ACETYLENE AND CANNED HEAT 49 

it should be fitted on as tight as possible to prevent waste 
alcohol by vaporization. 

46. Acetylene Gas Stoves. By adjustment of the 
amount of air that enters the burner, acetylene may be burnt 
in a gas stove. Usually a cap is placed over the air hole 
while the gas is being ignited. This is removed as soon as the 
gas is lighted, so that it will burn with a blue flame. The use 
of the cap prevents burning back. It is best, however, to 
use stoves especially designed for burning acetylene. 



CHAPTER VI 

FiRELESS AND STEAM COOKERS 

47. The Fireless Cooker. The fireless cooker is a box 
or can having a diameter somewhat larger than that of the 
largest vessel to be placed in it. The space left around the 
vessel is packed with some insulating material to keep in the 
heat (Fig. 22). In home-made cookers, this material may be 
hay, feathers, pillows, shredded newspapers, wood shavings 
or sawdust. In commercially-made cookers, it is felt, asbes- 
tos wool, cork, or other insulating material. Because most 
insulating material will not stay in place and readily absorbs 
moisture and odors, some kind of lining is put between it and 
the vessel holding the food. This makes a little nest, into 
which the vessel fits. In the better made cookers, this lining 
is made of metal, and the seams are water-tight. 

The steam from the cooking food is absorbed by the insu- 
lating material if this lining is not impervious to water. 
Enameled or earthen linings, if well glazed, would also serve 
this purpose as long as they did not chip or crack. 

The cover, as well as the sides, of the fireless cooker has to 
be padded with the insulating material. The cover must also 
fit well so that the steam and heat will not escape thru cracks 
between it and the body of the cooker. 

48. The Stones of Fireless Cookers. The stones for 
fireless cookers are usually made of soapstone or some com- 
posite which will absorb considerable heat. They should be 
slightly smaller in diameter than the nest. They can only be 
used with safety in cookers which are metal-lined and insu- 



FIRELESS AND STEAM COOKERS 



51 



lated with material which will not ignite at a low temperature. 
Stones should not be put in home-made cookers which are not 
insulated with asbestos or other fireproof material. Hot 
stones can be used with safety in any of the corrimercial cook- 
ers which come fitted with them. 

The temperature in a fireless cooker is below boiling most 




Fig. 22. Section of fireless cooker. 

of the time. It is, therefore, a device for simmering food, 
and should be used for cooking meats, fruits, vegetables and 
cereal dishes which require or are improved by long, slow 
cooking. 

Since the food has to be shut in a fireless cooker to keep in 
the heat, fireless cookery is a method of steaming of food. 
For this reason, it has a slightly different flavor from food 
baked in the oven, much as fried food differs from roasted 
food. Hot stones (Fig. 22) are put in most fireless cookers. 
The heat from these brown the food and give to the otherwise 
steamed food a flavor similar to that developed in baking, 
roasting and frying. 



52 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

49. Heating the Stones. Moisture given off by the 
cooking food is absorbed by the stones. They must be dried 
or heated very slowly to prevent this moisture from cracking 
them. When the stones have been removed from the cooker, 
wash them, because they absorb odors from the food. Keep 
them in some warm, dry place while they are not in use, such 
as in the warming oven of the cook stove or on a radiator. 
When wanted for use, they will then be dry enough to be 
placed over the gas-stove burner if it is not turned too high at 
first. Drying thus saves time when the stones are needed. 

50. Care of the Cooker. The cooker should be left 
open to air while not in use. As soon as the food and stones are 
removed from it, the moisture should be wiped out and the 
inside washed with soap and water, wiped dry and left to air. 
Such care is needed to prevent the cooker from taking on the 
odor of dishes previously cooked and transmitting some of 
them to those cooked later. 

51. Other Devices Belonging to Cookers. In most 
commercial cookers there are wire devices to raise the dishes 
of food from the stone (Fig. 23) . This prevents scorching and 
boihng over when the stones are heated very hot. These de- 
vices are also used to hold a hot stone above the food to make 
a brown crust on it. Some cookers are furnished with valves, 
permitting the escape of steam when it becomes too abundant. 
The pressure of the steam automatically opens the valve. 
This device insures the cooking of certain vegetables, cereals 
or doughs without their becoming too soggy to be palatable 
(A, Fig. 23). 

52. Directions for Using the Cooker. Put the stones 
on to heat. Prepare the food as for cooking in any other way. 



FIRELESS AND STEAM COOKERS 



53 



Then heat it, either in the oven or on top of the stove. It is 
preferable to heat the food in the same vessel in which it is to 
be cooked in the fireless cooker. Transferring food to a cold 




Fig. 23. Devices for fireless cooker. 

vessel entails a loss of heat, since the first vessel is already 
heated. 

When the stones and food are hot, place the stone in the 
bottom of the cooker. Put in any asbestos mats or other 



54 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



devices which are needed to protect the food. The stone should 
be hot enough to respond to the test for flat irons. It should 
make the snappy noise of a good hot iron when the finger is 
moistened and touched to it. Place the food in the cooker. 
Place another stone above the utensil if it is desirable to have 




Wk_-J 



Fig. 24. Gas cookers. 

the food brown on top. Close the fireless cooker, and let it 
stand until ready for use. 

53. Time of Cooking Food. Six hours or over night 
should be allowed for the cooking of cereals. Stews should 
be given two to three hours' time for cooking. 

Large roasts and hams require five to six hours. It is 
sometimes necessary, when they are large, to remove them 
and heat the food and the stones on the stove once during the 
process of cooking Dumplings and angel cakes cook well in a 
fireless cooker. So do all dried peas and beans. 



FIRELESS AND STEAM COOKERS 



55 



It is profitable to cook foods requiring more than forty 
minutes' heating in a fireless cooker. The heating unit is a 
part of some cookers. 

Electric cookers, instead of being furnished with stones to 
be put inside the nest, have a heating unit and plate for hold- 
ing heat in the cooker. 
Cold food may be put in- 
to this cooker, the current 
turned on, and the heat- 
ing and cooking all be 
done inside the cooker. 
The electric oven which 
is w^ll insulated answers 
the purpose of a fireless 
cooker when the current 
is disconnected. Either a 
thermometer, which the 
housewife may watch, or 
thermostat, which con- 
trols the current, must be 
attached to electric cook- 
ers to prevent burning 
the food or injuring the cooker with too much heat. 

54. Gas Cookers. Since heated air rises, special cookers 
in the form of insulated caps are made to put over dishes of 
food heated on gas burners (Fig. 24). 

The inside of the cap must be kept clean. Get the dishes 
hot with the cap suspended over the food, but leaving about 
an inch space for the escape of gases from the heating unit. 
As soon as the food and cap have been sufficiently heated 




Fig. 25. Steam cooker. 



56 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

over the fire, turn off the gas and lower the cap so that it will 
retain the heat. After the cooker has been used, it should be 
wiped out clean; otherwise it will retain some of the odors of 
the cooked food. 

55. Steam Cookers. There are several steam cookers 
in use in homes. The simplest of these is a covered pan 
which has a perforated bottom, which is set over another pan 
(A, Fig. 25), in which water is placed for forming steam. One 
of the difficulties of this cooker is that the water in the lower 
pan cannot be watched and may boil dry. On the more im- 
proved cookers a whistling device (B, Fig. 25) is attached to the 
pan, and when the water becomes low and steam ceases to 
flow thru it, air begins to come in, and the device makes a 
whistling noise. 

Questions for Part I 

1. What is smoke? Under what conditions is the greatest amount 
of heat for cooking or other household purposes produced from fuel? 

2. How is an oven made to heat evenly? 

3. Explain the purpose of each draft and damper on a stove. 

4. Observe the amount of fuel used in a coal stove from day to 
day. Make the same kind of observation for a gas or electric stove. 
How was the stove managed when the least fuel was used? 

5. Describe the construction of a gas stove. Find the vent thru 
which the gas enters the burner. Is this large or small? 

6. Where is the air regulator? For what is it used? 

7. What has happened when the gas in a burner "burns back"? 

8. How should a kerosene stove be regulated? How should it be 
cared for? 

9. What precautions should you take against fire from kerosene and 
gasoline stoves? 

10. Describe the heating unit of an electric stove. 

11. How may electric current be saved in the operation of an elec- 
tric stove? 

12. How does a fireless cooker cook food? 

13. How may one determine when it is economical to use a fireless 
cooker? 



PART II 

Heating Devices 

CHAPTER VII 
Warm-Air Furnaces 

56. Principle Upon Which a Furnace Works. The 

success of warm-air heating depends on a natural circulation 
of air thruout all the rooms which are to be heated. The air 
is the vehicle of transmission of the heat from the fire to the 
rooms to be warmed. 

A warm-air furnace is simply a large stove encased in a 
sheet-metal jacket (Figs. 26 and 27). The jacket is usually 
insulated with asbestos, since the stove is set in the basement 
where radiation of heat is not desired. The air entering the 
casing is wa,rmed by the stove. As the air is warmed, it ex- 
pands and becomes lighter, so rises to the top of the furnace; 
from here it is conducted to the rooms above. The warm air 
which has passed upward must be replaced by cooler air en- 
tering at the bottom of the jacket. In the rooms above, there 
must be outlets for the cold air, already in them, so that it 
may be replaced by the incoming warm air. Cold-air shafts 
from the floor leading downward serve as outlets. Some- 
times they return the cooled air to the base of the furnace 
jacket. 

57. The Stove Part. The stove part of the hot-air fur- 
nace consists of a fire pot supported above a place where the 
ashes may fall and a chimney to carry off smoke. The draft 



58 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



below the grate in the fire pot lets in air which is essential to 
the proper burning of the fuel. In this respect, it is similar 
to a cook stove. A draft above the fire when opened a little 
lets in air which aids in the complete combustion of the gases 



, c.;l O.- 



'■Hfii'O-. 




Fig. 26. Warm-air furnace. 

given off by the fuel. Burning these gases adds to the amount 
of heat secured from the fuel. Opening the draft wider checks 
the burning of the fire. There should be a damper in the 
smoke pipe. When this is closed, it checks the draft up the 



WARM-AIR FURNACES 



59 



chimney. This is needed because some chimneys often draw 
up air too fast to make the fire burn well. When checking the 
fire, close the draft below, open the one above the fire box, 
and close the one in the pipe. To make the fire burn fast, 
open the draft below, close the one above the fire box, and 




Fig. 27. Circulation of warm air. 

open the one in the pipe. Remember that a fire will not burn 
well if there is too much draft. Adjust the drafts until the 
fire burns with a clear, bright flame without giving off smoke. 
After a fire is built, the manner of adding fuel makes a differ- 
ence in the efficiency of the furnace. When using coal, add 
it in rather small amounts, spreading it in a layer over the 
entire fire. Do not make this layer so thick that the fire 
smokes. The fuel will not burn with a clear flame if the fire 
is being smothered. Much fuel is wasted by ignorant and 
careless management of furnaces. 



60 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

58. The Cold-Air Shaft. It is thru a cold-air shaft that 
the cooler air comes into the furnace. Some furnaces have 
this built so that it draws the cooling air from the rooms above 
down into the furnace to be heated again. This is an econom- 
ical arrangement. Some others draw fresh air from out of 
doors into the furnace, letting the cold air from the rooms 
above drain into the cellar and out of doors. This is more 
expensive, as the air to be heated is usually colder, but it has 
the advantage of helping ventilate the rooms by bringing a 
constant supply of fresh air. 

The cold-air shaft leading from out of doors should have 
the outer end covered with wire mesh, and a cloth which 
should be washed or renewed often. 

Never sweep • dirt down a register or cold-air shaft. It 
comes back into the room in time. Dust the registers occa- 
sionally. 

In older heating systems, there was but one large cold-air 
shaft to drain the cold air from the rooms above. In more 
modern houses, a cold-air shaft is placed in every room that 
may be shut off from the others. This does away with the 
old difficulty of heating a closed room, for it is as important 
that the colder air gets out as that the warm air gets in. 

59. Hot-Air Pipes. The hot-air pipes lead from the top 
of the jacket about the furnace to the floor above. In most 
houses, one pipe goes to each room. This is unnecessary if 
the rooms are not closed off, but if they are, they need the 
pipe entering the room. To economize with heat and regu- 
late the amount of air passing up these pipes, there must be 
a shutter in them, near the furnace, as well as in the register. 
This shutter is placed near the furnace so that no heat passes 



WARM-AIR FURNACES 



61 



into the pipe when not wanted in the room to which it leads. 
This saves waste in radiation from the pipe in the cellar. 
When a room is not in use, close this damper. 




Fig. 28. Pipeless furnace. 

Since warmed air will continue to travel upward so long as 
it stays warmer than the air above, it is important that the 
pipes have a continuous rise thruout their entire length, the 
in some parts the rise may have to be only very slight. The 



62 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



shorter the pipes, the better, for there will be less loss of heat 
from radiation on the way to the rooms. 

60. Location of the Furnace. A central location for 
the furnace is best because the pipes may be shorter, and this 




Fig. 29. One-room, hot-air heater. 



makes possible a greater elevation per foot of each pipe, so 
that the air can flow thru it faster. A central location also 
permits a uniform distribution of pipes about the furnace, 
which, in turn, produces a more even flow of air to all the 
rooms. 

The air from the hot register rises to the top of the room, 
or, if the way is open, to the top of the house. Here it spreads 



WARM-AIR FURNACES 63 

over the upper area. As it cools or is displaced by still hotter 
air, it falls. When it reaches the floor, it flows down the cold- 
air shaft in the floor. If the cold-air shaft is not in the floor, 
there may be a layer of colder air there so the room will not 
be comfortable. 

61. Air. There is a constant change of air in all houses, 
due to opening of doors and the fact that walls are not air- 
tight. This may not be enough for comfort. If a room is not 
heating well, it has been found that opening the window to 
change the air in the room, even when the outside air is very 
cold, helps in the circulation of air in the room, and so with 
the warming of it. It is difficult to warm a room filled with 
stagnant air. 

62. Pipeless Furnaces. The pipeless furnace works on 
the same principle as the one with pipes (Fig. 28). One large 
opening above the furnace lets the heat in to some central 
room, and from here it circulates into all other rooms not 
closed off from the central room. The cold-air shaft may be 
around the opening for heated air. 

Stoves encased in a metal jacket that operate like hot-air 
furnaces (Fig. 29) are used in heating one-room schoolhouses 
and other small public buildings. 



CHAPTER VIII 
Hot- Water System of Heating 

63. Equipment for Hot-Water Heat. The hot- water 
system of heating a house consists of a boiler in the basement 
or below the level of the lowest radiator. This boiler is de- 
signed to heat water as it circulates thru coils over the fire 




Fig. 30. Garland furnace with hot-water boiler. 

(Fig. 30) . From the boiler, pipes lead to radiators and an ex- 
pansion tank, and return pipes bring the cold water back to 
the bottom of the boiler (Fig. 31). 

The heat from the furnace fire causes the water to circulate 
thru this system of boiler, pipes, radiators and tank, due to 
the fact that hot water is lighter than cold water. 



HOT-WATER SYSTEM OF HEATING 



65 



64. Heating Unit. The heating unit of a hot- water 
system is Hke any stove consisting of a fire pot and grate. 
Some are adjustable so that different kinds of fuel may be 




Fig. 31. Hot-water heating system. 



66 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

used. A gas burner is sometimes placed in the fire pot and 
used for heating a furnace, but this is one of the most wasteful 
ways of using gas. A real gas furnace is much more econom- 
ical. The fire and heat from the fire circulate around the coils 
containing the water. If the coils are not constantly kept 
full of water, they will be injured by the heat. 

65. The Management of the Fire. When burning 
coal, spread the coal all over the surface of the fire in a thin 
layer so as not to smother it and thus make it burn with a 
smoky flame. Keep the ashes cleaned out from underneath 
the fire and around the fire pot. Clean the flues every forty- 
eight hours. Soot on the coils is more effective than asbestos 
would be in keeping heat from penetrating to the water. 
Regulate the fire with the drafts. Open the one below the 
fire box to let in air to aid combustion. Open the one found 
in most furnace doors a very little. This aids in the combus- 
tion of gases, thus making more economical use of the fuel, 
while opening it wider checks the burning of the fire. Broken 
and warped doors and drafts let in too much air and destroy the 
efficiency of the heater. Open the chimney damper, shown 
in Fig. 2, Sec. 3, admitting air to check the draft. Close the 
chimney or pipe damper of the type of cook stove shown in 
Fig. 2, Sec. 3, to check the draft up the chimney. 

66. The Pipes. The pipe carrying the hot water from 
the boiler out to the heating system leads to the expansion 
tank, tho sometimes separate pipes lead from the boiler to a 
radiator. Insulate each pipe, except the part in the room to 
be heated, with asbestos or some other covering, to keep the 
heat in it. Keep the pipes full of water. When they are in- 
stalled, see that they are put in so that they gradually rise 



HOT-WATER SYSTEM OF HEATING 



67 




Fig. 32. Expansion tank. 



upward. If they dip downward at any point, air will collect 
at these places and check the circulation of hot water thru 
pipes. 

67. Expansion Tank. The expansion tank (A, Fig. 31, 
and Fig. 32), placed somewhat higher than the top of the 
highest radiator, is fitted with an overflow, for water expands 
as it is heated. If the expan- 
sion tank is closed so that the 
overflow pipe will not open ex- 
cept under pressure after the 
air in the tank has become 
compressed by the expansion 
of the water, a higher temper- 
ature in the pipes may be reached, but such a furnace must 
be given more careful attention than one with an open ex- 
pansion tank. Learn to know the parts of a heating system 
and how they operate before trying to manage it. 

68. Water. Fill the boiler and radiators full of water, 
and add enough more to partly fill the expansion tank. From 
time to time, note the height of water in the tank, to know if 
more must be added. Do not add water when unnecessary, 
as fresh water tends to rust pipes faster than water from 
which the carbon dioxide and air have been exhausted. To 
note the height of water, read the gage. 

If there is much sediment in the water used, this must be 
drawn off from the bottom of the boiler to prevent its accu- 
mulating there. When this is done, fresh water must be 
added to replace the water drawn off. Loss of water from 
evaporation must also be replaced. No water should be put 
into the system except to replace such loss. Do not draw the 



68 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



water out of the system, and refill it from time to time. The 
practice of changing the water in the furnace rusts it more 
than keeping the same water in it all the time. 

69. Radiators. Radiators (B, Fig. 31) are made of 
rather complicated coils of pipe, so often an accumulation 

of air lodges in them. This inter- 
feres with the circulation of the 
water and the radiator does not 
get hot. There usually is a vent 
(A and B, Fig. 33) attached to 
each radiator to let out air which 
collects there. If a radiator does 
not heat well, open the air vent 
until the air ceases to flow from it 
and water comes; then close it. 
Valves should be placed at places where cold water col- 
lects in bad plumbing. 




Fig. 33. Vents for radiators. 




Fig. 34. Radiators under floor. 

In very cold weather, do not entirely shut off the valve of 
the pipe leading to any radiator, as the circulation of a little 
warm water is needed to keep it from freezing. Radiators 
may be placed under the floor (Fig. 34) when so desired. 



CHAPTER IX 
Steam-Heating Systems 

70. Equipment for Steam Heat. A steam-heating 
system consists of a boiler, a fire pot, pipes from the boiler 
leading to the radiators, and radiators (Fig. 35). On some 




Fig. 35. Steam furnace. 

systems, return pipes are pro- 
vided to carry condensed steam 
or water back to the lower part 
of the boiler. A safety valve 
(Fig. 36) is attached to steam- 
heating systems instead of an 
expansion tank. This keeps the pressure of the steam in the 
boiler from becoming too great, and thereby prevents an ex- 
plosion. The pressure gage {B, Fig. 35) must be set, and, 
when set, should only be changed by a person understanding 
it. Build and manage the fire for a steam boiler the same as 



70 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



mz 



I I III I I I a 



for any stove or furnace. Keep water in the boiler at 212 de- 
grees Fahrenheit, so steam may form, for without it, the ra- 
diators will not be heated. Small valves are attached to most 
steam radiators. Their purpose is to let out air, which accu- 
mulates in the radiator. As soon as the steam begins to 
come into the radiator, it forces the 
air out of the valve. When it reaches 
the valve, the heat in the steam 
causes part of the valve to expand Fig. 36. Safety valve, 
and close the outlet, which is small. When the radiator is 
hot, steam should not escape, provided the valves are in good 
working order. There is a gage (Fig. 37) furnished with 
each boiler which shows how much water is in it. 

Keep enough water in the boiler to come within certain 

lines on the indicator. The top of one of these lines is usually 

six or eight inches from the top of the boiler. 

There is always some variation in the amount 

of water in steam furnaces on account of the 

formation and condensation of the steam in 

pipes and radiators. See that the boiler is 

never empty, but do not put in fresh water 

except when necessary. 

The space above the water in the boiler is 

t7 orr TT7 ^ left for steam. The loss of water from a boiler 
Fig. 37. Water 

gage for steam in good working order is thru the air valves in 
the radiators. If the furnace is properly 
managed, very little water should be lost during the course of 
a year, so there is little need for adding water. 

Some furnaces have two pipes to the radiators. When 
steam is shut off from a radiator, the valve leading to the 




STEAM-HEATING SYSTEMS 71 

pipe which carries off the water from condensed steam must 
be closed, also, to prevent the pressure of the steam in the 
boiler from forcing water from the boiler up this pipe. This 
may happen because the pipe draining the water from the ra- 
diators enters the furnace near the bottom of the boiler. The 
steam being retained in the furnace presses down on the 
water and so may force water up the drain pipe, if it is not 
closed, instead of raising the safety valve. 

Carelessness of this kind may work much damage, for by 
this means all the water from the furnace can be forced up 
into the radiators, leaving the boiler empty. This makes it 
important that every woman should understand the steam- 
heating system in her home. 

Some steam-heating systems have a check valve in the pipe 
which returns water to the boiler. This valve permits water 
to flow thru it in but one direction; that is, toward the boiler. 
This prevents a rush of water from the boiler to the radiators. 

Steam furnaces, also, are often equipped with another safe- 
ty-valve device, which is a plug of metal which melts at a 
rather low temperature and is placed in the boiler directly 
over the fire. If the water line in the boiler falls low, this 
plug melts and steam from the boiler puts out the fire, thus 
saving the furnace from damage. 

However, melting out the plug makes much work both in 
replacing the plug and in cleaning the fire box to rebuild the 
fire, so that it should not be depended upon to regulate the 
heat in the boiler. 

Knocking in steam radiators occurs most often in those 
systems using the inlet steam pipe for the return of the water 



72 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

which has formed as a result of condensation. It is caused by- 
water accumulating at some point and the steam coming up 
the pipe, violently forcing it back into the radiator. This 
only reaches a danger point in systems which do not have 
pipes of the proper size, or when the pipes do not slope grad- 
ually downward, so that all the water may flow back to the 
furnace. On cold days, there will be some knocking in a 
steam radiator when it is being heated in the morning. A 
two-pipe system, while it is somewhat more expensive, is less 
subject to this trouble. 

71. Steam Gages. Steam gages (B, Fig. 35) are de- 
vices for indicating the pressure of steam within an inclosure. 
They are a kind of spring balance. When the pressure of the 
steam increases, it pushes up on the spring, and this turns the 
hand of the indicator, which shows the number of pounds of 
pressure that the steam is exerting on the inside of the boiler 
or container. 

72. Safety Valve. A safety valve (Fig. 86 and A, Fig. 
38) consists of a small opening to a boiler over which is a 
weight. When steam is developed until it makes enough pres- 
sure on the inside of the valve to raise this weight, some of the 
steam escapes, thus lowering the pressure on the inside until 
the weight falls back into place. Never let anything interfere 
with the action of safety valves. 

Most safety valves have the weight attached to a lever 
which has a movable weight on it so that the position of the 
weight on the lever makes a difference in the number of 
pounds of pressure required to open the valve. By means of 
this device, the temperature of the inside of the boiler can be 



STEAM-HEATING SYSTEMS 



73 



is*^^^ 



kept at one heat or another as desired, since this temperature 
increases or decreases with the pressure under which the 
steam is held. 

Thus, fifteen pounds pres- 
sure means a different tempera- 
ture from ten pounds pressure. 
Be sure to adjust the weight 
for the temperature desired. 
Pushing the weight toward the 
valve lessens the amount of 
pressure needed to open the 
valve. There is usually a 
steam gage on boilers to indi- 
cate the temperature and 
pounds of pressure inside. 
When the indicator reaches 
the point desired, the safety 
valve may be set so that all 
steam in excess of the desired 
amount will escape. When 
this is done, the temperature will be held constant in the 
boiler so long as a good fire under it is maintained. 




Fig. 38. Heating plant showing 
safety valve. 



CHAPTER X 
Fireplaces and Heating Stoves 

73. Construction of Fireplace. Fireplaces are an en- 
largement in the base of a chimney where fire is built. The 
upper part of the fireplace is sloped forward, and, in some 
cases, a damper is placed in the chimney to regulate the flow 
of air upward. The damper should not be so constructed 
that it will close entirely, for if it did, the smoke would come 
into the room. The fire in the fireplace burns best when the 
fuel is put in a grate or on andirons so that air can get under 
it and be drawn thru it by the draft of the chirhney. A 
steady draft makes the combustion of the fuel complete and 
thus prevents smoking. 

The hearth is made of fireproof material and should be 
wide enough to catch all sparks flying from the fire. A screen 
is often needed for safety from fire. Do not pile reserved 
fuel or put rugs on the hearth. 

Fireplaces and chimneys should be built of fireproof brick, 
stone or concrete. Have them examined once a year for 
cracks, as these make them unsafe. The walls of the chim- 
ney and the fireplace should be thick enough to prevent dan- 
ger from fire. 

74. Management of Fireplace. The management of a 
fireplace is very simple. The draft up the chimney should be 
properly regulated so that the fire does not smoke. Sparks 
and bits of fuel should not be drawn up the chimney. The 
fire should be built so that it is not smothered. Air should 
circulate thru the fuel. Keep the ashes cleared away. 



FIREPLACES AND HEATING STOVES 75 

There are some fireplaces which are intended to heat rooms 
after the manner of hot-air furnaces. The heat and smoke 
from the fire pass upward thru a metal heater, encased by an 
air chamber. Much of the heat passes thru the metal, warm- 
ing the air in the chamber. This warmed air passes thru 
pipes and registers into the rooms, while the smoke finds its 
way to the chimney. To complete the circulation of air, the 
cold air from the floor passes into the air chamber near the 
floor at the sides of the fireplace. Sometimes fresh air from 
the outside of the building is mixed with the air in the cham- 
ber. 

If there is an opening in the floor of the fireplace, a damper 
should be put in this opening to regulate the flow of air. The 
heater in a fireplace must be kept free from soot and ashes. 
If the metal is covered with soot, heat will not readily pass 
thru it, and the soot will collect moisture and cause rusting. 

One way to keep the heater clean is to regulate the draft up 
the chimney so that ashes and bits of burning fuel are not 
drawn into it. Also, the fire should be kept burning with a 
clear (not smoky) blaze. Soot is unburnt fuel. 

75. Operating Heating Stoves. A stove is a device for 
holding the fuel and for permitting the heat to pass readily 
into the room. In the stove there is space below the fire for 
collecting ashes. There is an opening for fresh air to enter 
below the fuel, to aid combustion, and a damper above to act 
as a check draft when open, a chimney to carry off smoke, and 
one or two dampers in the chimney to regulate the draft. 

When a fire is being built, close the draft over the fire box 
and open the one below; open the damper in the chimney— 
this allows the free passage of the air up the chimney. 



76 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

76. Care of the Stove. Do not permit a large bed of 
ashes to accumulate in the bottom of a stove. A thin layer of 
ashes must be kept in the bottom of some wood stoves to 
keep the fire away from the metal bottom. 

The polish or finish of the stove is a matter of taste. Some 
stoves are made of iron, which does not need blacking; 
some must be blacked. Blacking keeps them from rusting. 
All must be kept free from dust and dirt, as this accumulates 
moisture and causes the stove to rust. 

Letting the stove get red hot warps it. It should not be 
permitted to get so hot. 

The grate (Fig. 3) in stoves holds the fuel so that air can 
flow up thru it. If the grate is clogged with ashes, this cannot 
happen. The grate should be shaken to make the ashes drop 
thru. A clean grate is important to the complete combustion 
of the fuel. Shaking after glowing coals begin to fall is a 
waste of fuel. 

When an attempt to shake the grate is made, it may sud- 
denly refuse to move. In this case, something may have lodged 
between its parts, or it may have been shaken from its proper 
position. Shaking the stove too hard may displace the grate. 
The common remedy for a displaced grate is to let the fire 
go out, remove all ashes and cinders, and readjust the grate. 

Some kinds of soft coal form "clinkers," and these catch in 
the grate. In burning fuel that makes clinkers, shake the 
ashes from the fire several times a day. Remove all accumu- 
lations in the fire box daily. Clinkers are made from sub- 
stances which melt and recombine, forming a different mate- 
rial which is quite hard and does not burn. Constant atten- 
tion to the fire prevents clinkers from forming in large masses. 



CHAPTER XI 

Gas, Electric and Kerosene Heaters 

77. Kinds of Gas Heaters. There are several types of 
gas heaters — those using an illuminating flame and reflector, 
those fitted with a Bunsen burner and an asbestos back, and 
those heating water in a device like a radiator. The last two 




Fig. 39. Gas heater showing air mixer. 



burn with a blue flame. All gas stoves ought to be fitted with 
a flue for discharging the products of combustion. 

78. Bunsen Burner and Asbestos-Back Heater. The 
burner is a long pipe punctured with holes extending across 
the stove. There is an opening for mixing of air with the gas 
at the point where this pipe enters the stove, and a valve to 
regulate the flow of gas (Fig. 39). 



78 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



79. Lighting Gas Stoves. To light the stove, open the 
valve, count three, and apply a lighted match to the burner. 
Counting three gives time for the pipe to fill with gas, so that 
the fire will not flash back and burn in the air mixer. 

80. Care of Gas Stoves. The only care that this stove 
needs is to keep it polished so that it will not rust. Keep the 
burner clean of dust and soot. Be sure that the valve is en- 
tirely closed when the gas is turned off, and that the pipes fit 
tight at all connections so that gas cannot leak into the room. 

81. Illuminating Flame and Bright Metal Reflector 
Heaters. These heaters are used with manufactured gas. 

They burn with an illuminat- 
ing flame since there is no 
device for mixing air with the 
gas as it enters the stove. The 
bright metal reflector not 
only makes an attractive 
stove, but reflects the heat 
out into the room. Some 
stoves are made with tips of 
aluminum or other non-cor- 
rosive metal over the open- 
ings in the biirner (Fig. 40). 
Gas logs are a type of gas heaters used in fireplaces (Fig. 41). 

82. Gas Radiator Heaters. Gas radiators (Fig. 42) are 
another type of gas heater. The radiator is a coil of pipe. 
The heating unit is below the coil and works like any other 
Bunsen burner. A small amount of water is kept in the 
pipes. There is a device attached to the radiator to auto- 
matically adjust the height of the gas fire (A, Fig. 42). 




Fig. 40. Reflector gas heater. 



GAS, ELECTRIC AND KEROSENE HEATERS 



79 




Fig. 41. Gas logs. 



83. Management of Gas Radiator. Put enough water 
in the radiator or coil of pipe to fill it to the depth of one inch. 
Keep this amount of water in it at all times. 

Light a match, turn on the valve which lets gas flow into 
the burner, wait for it to fill with gas, and 
touch the match to the burner. 

Most of these heaters are fitted with 
thermostats. 

In about thirty minutes after lighting 
the gas, the water will have formed 
enough steam inside the radiator to auto- 
matically turn the valve lowering the gas 
flame. If the steam pressure falls low, the 
thermostat will permit more gas to flow 
into the radiator by automatically opening the valve. 

There is a safety valve attached to 
the side of the radiator which opens if 
the automatic device fails to close off 
the gas before the steam pressure in- 
side becomes too great. 

84. Kerosene Heaters. Kero- 
sene heating stoves have burners like 
those used on kerosene cook stoves. 
(See Chapter III.) Surrounding, or 
about, the burner is a jacketed air 
space. Here air is heated and rises 
to the upper part of the room while 
fresh air from the lower part of the room is drawn thru the 
jacket. Some heat is also given off by radiation. Fig. 43 
shows a picture of an oil heater. 

6 




Fig. 42. Gas radiators. 



80 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



FLORENCE 

OIL HEATERS 






Fig. 43. Oil heater. 



The burners of these stoves should be cared for the same 

way as the ones on cooking stoves. The stove should be kept 

polished and free from 
dust. This prevents it 
from rusting. Wipe off any 
kerosene which may accu- 
mulate on the outside, for 
it makes an unpleasant 
odor. 

Take care in moving 
kerosene stoves not to jar 
the chimney or other parts 

of the burner out of place; otherwise the stove will smoke. 
When the stove is lighted, turn the burner quite low. The 

flame will become higher 

as the parts of the stove 

become heated. 

85. Electric Heaters. 

The electric heaters (Fig. 44) 
are composed of one or 
more coils of wire thru which 
the electric current flows 
with difficulty. This heats 
the coils so hot that they 
glow. A reflector throws 
the heat out into the room. 
The coil and reflector are 
attached to a pedestal. 
They are desirable for use 




Fig. 44. Electric heater. 



in rooms which are not quite warm enough. Care must be 



GAS, ELECTRIC AND KEROSENE HEATERS 81 

taken to avoid getting an electric shock from electric heat- 
ers, as from any other electrical appliances. If the stove 
seems to be out of order, have it put in order before using. 
Take care not to touch a water pipe or gas pipe at the same 
time when touching the heater in the bathroom, as there is 
a possibility of getting a shock, 

86. Acetylene Heaters. Acetylene heaters are similar 
to the Bunsen burner and asbestos-back gas heaters. They 
are provided also with copper side reflectors. They are used 
only in localities where gas or electricity cannot be had. 
Questions FOR Part II 

1. What are the essentials in heating a house with a hot-air furnace? 

2. How does the "pipeless" furnace differ from the other types? 

3. Explain the circulation of water thru a hot-water heating system. 

4. What is the purpose of the expansion tank? Where should it be 
located? 

5. Describe a steam-hestting system. 

6. What care should be taken in managing a steam-heating system? 

7. What precautions should be taken when using an electric 
heater? 



PART III 
Lighting Devices 

CHAPTER XII 
Electric Lights 

87. Kinds of Electric Lamps in Use. The electric 
lamps on the market now are either tungsten (also called 
Mazda) or metallized carbon (called gem carbon) lamps. Of 
all lighting appliances, electric lamps and systems are most 
easily cared for. If properly selected, they make an excellent 
light from the standpoint of hygiene. It is important for 
every one to know enough about lighting to be able to select 
proper kinds and sizes of lamps. 

88. Electrical Measurements. A volt is the unit of 
electric pressure which compares with the pound as the unit 
of water pressure. 

An ampere is the unit of electricity flowing thru a wire 
which compares to the gallon as the unit of water per minute 
flowing thru a pipe. 

A watt is the unit of electrical power. It is determined by 
multiplying the volts by the amperes. 

A kilowatt equals 1000 watts. 

A kilowatt hour equals 1000 watt-hours. 

A watt-hour is the amount of energy needed by a device 
which uses one watt and is operated for one hour. For ex- 



ELECTRIC LIGHTS 



83 



ajnple, a 25-watt lamp uses 25 watts, and if it is operated one 
hour, it uses 25-watt hours of electricity. 

The cost of burning an electric lamp is the number of watts 
marked on the lamp multiplied by the hours the lamp is 
burned, and then translated into kilowatt hours and multi- 
plied by the price per kilowatt hour. 

89. Carbon Lamps. Few carbon lamps are being made 
now, but they may still be obtained in. some stores. The car- 
bon lamp can be distinguished from 
Mazda lamps (Fig. 45) by the appear- 
ance of the filament. The carbon 
lamp gives about 0.40 candles of light 
per watt of electricity consumed. Car- 
bon lamps burn, making a yellow or 
reddish light, and consume fully twice 
as much current as Mazda lamps of 
the same candle power. 




Fig. 45. Direct light. 



90. Mazda or Tungsten Lamps. 

Tungsten lamps are the ones in com- 
mon use. They give 0.80 to 1.00 can- 
dle of light to one watt of electricity used. They have a 
filament of tungsten and may now be used in any position. 
Less electricity is required to bring tungsten to a glowing 
white heat than other materials used in lamps. 

To compare the brightness of two lamps, do not look at the 
filament, but hold pieces of white material like paper at an 
equal distance from each lamp and compare the brightness of 
the surfaces; or put an opaque object in front of the light and 



84 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

let a shadow be cast on another object. The brighter Hght 
will cast a heavier shadow. 

When substituting a new tungsten lamp for a carbon lamp, 
select one about one-half the number of watts, unless more 
light is wanted. In houses, it is a common practice to sub- 
stitute a 40-watt Mazda for a 50-watt gem carbon lamp, thus 
saving ten watts per hour and getting more light. 

91. Selecting Lamps for a Room. There are so many 
possibilities for the use of electricity in lighting a house, that 
it becomes a fine art. When buying lights for a room, con- 
sider (1) the size of the room, (2) the use of the room, and (3) 
the color of walls, floors, ceilings, furnishings and decorations. 
For lighting purposes, lamps may be obtained ranging from 
10 or less to more than 100-candle power. 

There are colored, transparent and frosted globes. There 
are reflectors and shades of various colors and patterns. To 
obtain the same degree of illumination, smaller lamps are 
needed in small rooms than in large ones. 

92. Effect of Color Schemes Upon Illumination. The 
color of the walls and furnishings makes a difference in the 
candle power required to give a certain amount of light. 
Those colors which absorb the most light require the higher 
candle power, and those reflecting the highest per cent of 
light require the lower candle power. 

Tho frosted globes absorb some light, they diffuse the rest 
of it. They dispense with the annoyance of glare from lamps, 
and are useful in places where the full intensity of the lamps 
is not required. 

The light absorbed by different colors varies considerably, 
as shown by the accompanying table : 



ELECTRIC LIGHTS 85 

TABLE SHOWING ABSORPTION OF LIGHT 

Percentage 
OF Light 
Color Absorbed 

White 30 

Chrome yellow 38 

Orange 50 

Clean pine wood 55 

Yellow paper 60 

Yellow paint (clean) 60 

Light pink paper 64 

Dirty pine wood 80 

Dirty yellow paint 80 

Emerald green paper 82 

Dark brown paper 87 

Vermilion paper 88 

Blue green paper 88 

Cobalt green paper 88 

Deep chocolate paper 96 



93. Distribution of Light. Light in rooms for general 
use should be distributed as evenly as possible thruout the en- 
tire room. Avoid excessive contrasts of brightness and dark- 
ness. Have the lamps shaded to diffuse the light so that no 
one need look directly at the filament. When working by a 
light, do not put the lamp very close to the material, as this 
produces too strong contrasts of light and dark, or, when 
reading, it produces too much reflection from the white parts 
of the paper, which is trying on the eyes. 

Direct lighting means that the rays from the lamp go di- 
rectly into the room (Fig. 45). Indirect lighting means that 
the rays are all directed toward a reflecting surface such as the 



86 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

ceiling (Fig. 46). From here they are reflected, giving an 
even amount of hght to other parts of the room. When di- 
rected toward the ceihng, they make it the brightest part of 
the room. 

A semi-indirect light avoids this difficulty (Fig. 47). 

In diffused lighting, the lamp is covered, as by frosting, so 
that the rays of light are broken up and so scattered that no 




Fig. 46. Indirect light. 

direct ray shines into the eyes, and there is no bright spot of 
light in the room. 

When costs must be limited, certain decorative effects must 
be weighed for their value, some being more expensive than 
others. 

City lighting plants can provide current for any number of 
lamps in a house if it is properly wired. If more lamps are 
attached than the wiring will carry, and all are turned on, the 
fuses will burn out. 

Electric plants for private homes (see Sec. 271) usually fur- 
nish current of a different voltage from city electric plants, 
so special equipment and lamps must be used with small 
plants. 



ELECTRIC LIGHTS 



87 



Inquire of the company who installed the wiring or electric 
system, how many lights and other devices can be attached 
and for what voltage they should be made. 




Fig. 47. Semi-indirect light. 



CHAPTER XIII 



Gas Light 



94. Construction of Mantles. A mantle is a device 
made of thread saturated with some fireproof material like a 
mixture of thorium and cerium which will glow, giving off a 
white light when heated hot. The mantle (A and B, Fig. 

48) is placed over the burners of lamps 
using liquid or gaseous fuel. The gas 
is mixed with air so that it burns 
with a blue flame. The blue flame 
gives off little light, but it does not 
smoke and is much hotter than a 
yellow flame. When a mantle is 
placed over the blue flame, it is heat- 
ed with less fuel consumption than is 
required to make a yellow illuminat- 
ing flame. The light from the glow 
of the mantle is steadier and whiter 
than the light from an open flame, so 
that it is more hygienic. 

Mantles are made in different pat- 
terns so that they may be used on upright and inverted burn- 
ers. The inverted mantle throws more light downward than 
an upright mantle. This is advantageous in lighting a 
room, for most of the light is wanted in the lower part of 
the room. Mantles can be used on lamps burning gas, kero- 




'^^^' 




Fig. 48. Mantles. 



GAS LIGHT 



89 




Fig. 48-a. Adjusting gas 

light. 



sene, gasoline, alcohol and acetylene if the burners are made 
to produce a blue flame. (See Figs. 48 and 52.) 

95. Care of Mantles. Strong jars and drafts will break 
mantles, for they are very fragile. The explosion caused by 
burning back when the lamp is being lighted is most de- 
structive to mantles. To save 
mantles, wait until the lamp has 
filled with gas before touching the 
lighted match to it. 

96. Fixtures for Burning 
Gas. Gas will burn just as it 
escapes from a pipe. The flame 
of burning gas is yellow and makes 
considerable light. In order to secure more light for the 
amount of gas burned, put a tip on the end of the pipe, with 

a long, narrow slit in the top to spread 
the flame. These are usually lava tips. 
Natural gas gives very little light when 
burned in an open flame. Always burn it 
in mantle lamps. Its heating value is 1000 
B. T. U. per cubic foot. When burned in a 
well-adjusted mantle lamp, natural gas 
will give about 15 candle hours per cubic 
foot. The heating value of manufactured 
gas is rated at 600 B. T. U. per cubic foot. 
It makes a fair light when used in an open 
flame burner. The yellow flame of burn- 
ing gas makes considerable smoke, even when carefully 
adjusted. It gives four times as much light and no smoke 
when it is. burned in a good mantle lamp. 




Fig. 49. Bunsen 
burner for gas 
light. 



90 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



In the special burner of the mantle lamp, the gas is mixed 
with air so that it will burn with a blue flame (Fig, 49). A 
blue flame is not good for lighting, but when a mantle is 
placed over the flame, it becomes heated, glowing hot. Since 
the mantle is made of a material which gives off a white glow, 
it lights the room with a steady light which is far better than 
the flickering light of the open flame (Fig. 48-a). 

97. Adjustment. See that the ports thru which air is 
drawn into the lamp are open as wide 
as needed to give a clear, smokeless 
flame without firing back. Some 
lamps are fitted with a screw beside 
the cocks to regulate the amount of 
gas fiowing into the lamp. It should 
be adjusted so that no more gas flows 
into the lamp than is needed to get as 
bright a glow as possible from the 
mantle. Regulate the gas flow by 
closing the valve attached to this 
screw until the mantle decreases per- 
ceptibly in brightness, and then slowly 

opening it until the mantle becomes bright. Gas companies 
often adjust lamps for their customers. 

98. Care of Lamps. Clean the burners if they become 
sooted. Replace mantles if they are broken. 

99. Lighting a Gas Light. When lighting a lamp, turn 
on the gas, count three, and then light the lamp. Counting 
three gives time for the burner to fill with gas and prevents 
burning back with an explosion. Mantles are very delicate 




Fig. 50. Open -flame 
acetylene burner. 



GAS LIGHT 



91 



aURNER 



and easily broken by jars or strong drafts. Burning back 
may break the mantle. 

Burning back means that the gas ignites at the opening 
where it should be mixing with the air instead of- at the tip of 
the burner. This happens when the lamp is lighted before it 
becomes filled with gas, or when there is too much air mixed 
with the gas. 

100. Cold-Process Gasoline Gas. It is more econom- 
ical to use cold-process gasoline gas with a mantle lamp than 
an open-flame burner for lighting. 
Be sure to use the burners made 
especially for this kind of gas. 
The lamps are managed like all 
others. 

101. Acetylene Lamps. Open- 
flame burners are used for acety- 
lene gas because no mantle burn- 
er has been constructed which 
will operate reliably with this rich 
gas. 

Acetylene gas gives about ten times as much light per cubic 
foot as manufactured gas burned in an open flame. The 
burners require little care. Sometimes the holes in burners 
become stopped, and they should be cleaned out with a fine 
pointed instrument like a needle. When they do not work 
well, it pays to replace the old tips with new ones. 

Acetylene gas burners are constructed so that a very fine 
spray of gas strikes another fine spray, which, when ignited, 
makes a broad flame. This flame, which is almost white, 
gives off light. The burners appear as illustrated in Fig. 50. 




Fig. 50-a. Showing electric 
lighting device for acety- 
lene burner. 



92 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

102. Care of Burners of Acetylene Lamps. Keep the 
two holes open. Clean them with a large needle. See that 
there are no leaks about the burners or pipes. If these are 
found, fill with white lead or some similar substance, and 
tighten connections. If this does not suffice, the trouble 
should be referred to a plumber. Fig. 50-a shows an acety- 
lene burner. 

Acetylene lamp mantles can be used only with acetylene 
which is under high pressure. Therefore, they cannot be 
used with all plants. The special burner for mixing air with 
the acetylene to make it burn with a blue flame must be used 
with the mantle. 



CHAPTER XIV 
Kerosene Lamps 

103. Construction of Kerosene Lamps. A kerosene 
lamp consists of a bowl, a burner, a wick and a chimney. 

In the ordinary lamp, the bowl for holding the oil is placed 
below the burner (Fig. 51). The wick carries the oil from 
the bowl into the burner by 
capillary attraction — one end 
being in the oil and the other in 
the burner. 

The burner, which has holes 

in it to let in air, holds the 

wick so that only the oil reach-' 

ing the top burns. The area 

and shape of the flame depends ^^^iP'^- ^^"^P^ ^^^ 1^™P 
^ chimneys. 

upon the form of the top sur- 
face of the wick. The glass chimney is used to cause an 
air current thru the burner and to protect the flame from out- 
side drafts. A screw moves the wick thru the burner. If 
the wick is too small, the fire may burn back thru the burner 
and ignite the oil in the bowl. It is important that a wick 
fit the burner. If the chimney is too short or broken, the 
lamp will smoke (A, 5, Fig. 51). 

104. Management of Kerosene Lamps. When the 
lamp smokes, it is wasting fuel. Smoke is incompletely burnt 
fuel. The oil in the lamp should be clean. It should never 
be mixed with gasoline or other more explosive oils. 

Fill the bowl each day the lamp is used to within one-half 



■{W, 


, f<, 


' 


Wti 


1^ 


u. 




jifc *\ 


M^\ 


^V^ - 


^fc^ 


%^, 


^^ 


J^ 


A 


A 


e 


c 



94 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

inch of the top. A full bowl helps to make a safe lamp. 

Put the chimney on the lamp so that it fits in its holder. 
Keep it clean and bright. Keep the wick clean and trimmed 
evenly. See that it entirely fills the opening thru the burner. 
This prevents the fire from burning back down the burner and 
igniting the oil in the bowl. 

Oil will not pass up a wick which fits too tight. Do not cut 
a wick to trim it, but keep the charred part scraped or 
brushed off even with the top of the slit in the burner. A 
burnt match is useful for this purpose. 

105. Lighting a Kerosene Lamp. When lighting a 
lamp, be sure it is in order and that any 
openings to the bowl are closed. Lift 
the chimney, turn the screw to raise the 
wick about one-eighth inch above the 
slit. Touch a lighted match to the wick, 
adjust the chimney, and, lastly, move the 
wick up or down until it burns' clear 
and bright without smoking. After the 
burner becomes warm, the flame may 

Fig. 52. Mantle for grow higher and smoke. Do not leave a 
kerosene lamp. newly-lighted lamp unwatched. After 
the lamp is heated and adjusted, it should burn with a flame 
of even height. 

106. To Extinguish a Lamp. Turn the wick down un- 
til it is slightly below the top of the slit. Do not turn too far. 
It will then go out of itself, or a slight puff of air will extin- 
guish it. This is safer and will smoke the chimney less than 
attempting to blow out the full flame. 

107. Care of Lamps. Keep the inside and outside of 




KEROSENE LAMPS 95 

bowl and chimney clean. Wipe all soot from the burners. 
Trim the wick each day the lamp is used. Fill the bowl with 
oil to within one-half inch of the top. Get new wicks when 
the old ones become dirty. 

108. Kerosene Mantle Lamps. Kerosene mantle lamps 
(Fig. 52) give three to four times as much light per unit of oil 
as the ordinary kerosene lamp. Many mantle lamps on the 
market are unreliable. Care, therefore, should be taken to 
give the lamp a trial before investing so as to be sure to get a 
good one. 

The care and lighting of mantle lamps differ so much that 
the directions must be furnished by the manufacturer and 
should be followed with exactness. 



CHAPTER XV 
Alcohol and Gasoline Lamps 

109. Classification of Lamps. Since the principle of 

operation is the same for most alcohol and gasoline lamps, 

they will be considered together. 

These lamps may be divided into two classes — gravity 

lamps and pneumatic, or pressure, lamps. 

110. Gravity Lamps. Gravity lamps 

have the tank elevated above the burner 

so that the force of gravity brings the fluid 

to the burner. It is usually a little to one 

side of the burner so that it cannot become 

heated by it. A pipe from the tank leads 

downward and either over the chimney or 

under the burner, where it will be heated 

by the flame of the lamp. When heated, 

it changes the gasoline or the alcohol to 

gas. The pipe carries the gas on to a 

point where it is mixed with air before it 

flows into the burner (Fig. 53). 

111. Lighting the Gravity Lamp. In order to light 
these lamps, the generator must first be heated so as to make 
the gas. After this has once been done, the heat of the lamp 
keeps the generator hot. As soon as the gas is formed, light 
the lamp. 

These lamps are furnished with mantles. The flame is blue 
and, consequently, gives out very little light, but much heat. 




Fig. 53. Gasoline 
or alcohol lamp. 



ALCOHOL AND GASOLINE LAMPS 



97 



The mantle covering the flame is heated to glowing white 
heat and gives off much light of a white color. 

112. Pressure Lamps. Pressure lamps (Figs. 54 and 
55) have a strong tank which holds air and fuel, whether alco- 
hol or gasoline. Air is pumped into the tank so that it presses 
on the fuel with force enough 
to push the fuel up the pipe 





Fig. 54. Details of gasoline 
lamp. 



Fig, 55. Pneumatic gasoline 
lamp. 



leading from the bottom of the tank to the generator. The 
air cannot get into the pipe so long as there is fuel which is 
heavier than air in the tank, because the pipe which leads to 
the burner starts from the bottom of the tank. 

The generator for changing the liquid fuel to gas is placed 
between the burners of the lamp, of which there are usually 
two. After the generator has been heated, the lighted lamps 
keep the generator hot. The gas being very light, continues 



98 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

to rise. It passes thru a place where it is mixed with air, and 
goes on into the burner, where it is ignited. If the lamp 
burns low, more air must be pumped into the tank to force up 
the gasoline or alcohol. When all the fluid has been burned, 
the lamp will go out, since, then, only the air which is under 
pressure in the tank will be coming into the burner. 

Extinguish the lamp by turning off the supply of fuel to the 
generator. To light these lamps, first heat the generator, as 
directed for the particular lamp in use, and then light the 
burners. Detailed directions cannot be given here, as they 
differ with different lamps. 

113. Gasoline Lamps with Wicks. There are some 
gasoline lamps made with wicks which help conduct the oil 
into the burner, where it is changed to gas by the heat from 
the lamp, mixed with air and burned in a mantle. The flame, 
from a mixture of alcohol or gasoline and air, is blue and gives 
off little light, but much heat. It is used with a mantle. 

114. Alcohol Lamps with Wicks. The wick of one 
type of alcohol lamp conducts the alcohol up thru a round 
tube which it completely fills. The tube prevents the fire 
from burning down into the bowl of the lamp. Alcohol 
makes a very hot and almost smokeless flame, even when 
little air is present. The mantle is put over the flame, and, 
when heated, gives a good light. Other ordinary fuels cannot 
be used on so simple a lamp because they would smoke the 
mantle. 

115. Lighting Alcohol or Gasoline Lamps. Heat the 
conducting pipe at the point where the fuel is to be changed to 
gas. (Directions for this come with each lamp, and they dif- 
fer considerably.) After being heated sufficiently, the valve 



ALCOHOL AND GASOLINE LAMPS 99 

leading to the burner is opened and the burner hghted with a 
match or torch. Use clean gasoline for these lamps, un- 
mixed with water or other substances. 

Questions for Part III 

1 . Are there any differences in the electric light globes on the market ? 
If so, in what ways do they differ? How do these differences affect the 
lighting power of the globes? 

2. What influence has the size and decoration of the room on the 
brilliancy of light from a given lamp? 

3. How should the light in a living-room be distributed? 

4. What are the differences in direct, semi-direct and indirect light- 
ing? 

5. What is the purpose of a mantle for a gas or kerosene lamp? 

6. What is the difference in burners to be used with and without 
mantles? 

7. How is the light from a lamp measured? 

8. Which lamp gives the greatest candle power of light for the 
amount of fuel used — the one with or the one without a mantle? 



PART IV 

Cooling Devices 

CHAPTER XVI 

Refrigerators 

116. Principles of Refrigeration. Refrigerators (Fig. 
56) are designed to prevent the rapid spoiling of food by keep- 
ing it too cool for the rapid growth of bacteria. They vary 




Fig. 56. Refrigerator. 

considerably in their efficiency, according to their construc- 
tion and to the way in which they are managed. To preserve 
food and to save ice, the housewife must understand her refrig- 
erator, and she must choose a good one. There is as much 
difference in the efficiency with which housewives manage 
their refrigerators as there are differences in refrigerators. 



REFRIGERATORS 101 

A series of experiments were conducted with a number of 
different makes of refrigerators. When the outside tempera- 
ture was between 80 and 90 degrees Fahrenheit, and when the 
refrigerators were kept full of ice, it was found that the tem- 
peratures in different refrigerators varied between 45 and 60 
degrees Fahrenheit. When the refrigerators were only partly 
full of ice, their temperatures rose several degrees. 

The refrigerators which held a temperature of 45 degrees 
when filled with ice, or with 100 pounds, used 25 pounds of ice 
each in three days, while in the same three days, the ones 
which could maintain only a temperature as low as 65 de- 
grees, used 50 pounds each. The warmer the inside of a ref- 
rigerator, the faster the ice melts. 

In general, a refrigerator which maintains a low tempera- 
ture is cheapest to operate. The refrigerator should be kept 
full of ice exposed so that it comes in contact with the air cir- 
culating within the refrigerator. The refrigerator which does 
not hold a low temperature will not only use more ice, but be 
less efficient in keeping food. 

117. The Construction of Refrigerators. The con- 
struction of a refrigerator should be such that it may be kept 
clean. There should be no cracks and corners to catch dirt 
and make breeding places for molds and bacteria. 

118. Lining Refrigerators. The best linings for refrig- 
erators are porcelain, porcelain enamel, or glass for the more 
expensive ones, and galvanized iron or zinc for the less ex- 
pensive ones. The shelves are usually made of heavy wire or 
of bent metal. The latter should be constructed so that they 
can be thoroly cleaned. 



102 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



119. Insulation of Refrigerators. The more complete 
the insulation of a refrigerator, the more efficient it will be. 
Different kinds of material, as well as dead-air spaces, are 

used for this purpose. The top, 
as well as the bottom, must be 
insulated. Materials which are 
likely to crack or settle down 
and leave uninsulated spaces 
should not be used. Because 
sawdust settles, it is not satis- 
factory. There are felts, papers 
and other materials which are 
good. If the refrigerator is not 
water-tight and the insulating 
material absorbs water, it will 




V 

Fig. 57. Diagram showing cir- ^^se its efficiency for insulation, 
cuiation in a refrigerator. ^gO. Circulation in Re- 

frigerators. The better the circulation in a refrigerator, 
the more efficient it will be. The air in the refrigerator must 
be free to circulate over the ice. As it cools, it should drop 
to the bottom of the ice box. When it warms, it will rise and 
be displaced by fresh falling cold air. It should be free to rise 
to the top of the refrigerator and from there pass into the ice 
cham-ber and over the ice to be cooled again (Fig. 57). When 
the ice always melts unevenly and in the same relative 
place — that is, more on the side or bottom — it indicates 
poor circulation in the refrigerator. 

121. Drip from Melting Ice. There should be a pan 
under the ice to catch the drip from the melting ice, and a 
drip pipe to carry it out of the refrigerator (Fig. 57). If the 



REFRIGERATORS 103 

drip pipe passes into a pan set under the refrigerator, the pan 
should be emptied so that it will not overflow. The water in 
the pan should not be allowed to become stagnant. 

If this pipe passes to a drain, it should not be attached to 
the drain, but drip into it. The small amount of fresh air pass- 
ing up the drip pipe from the room is advantageous. Because 
some air does flow thru here, the drip pipe and the drain pipe 
must be clean and free from gases and odors. 

The drip pipe should be straight and free from places in 
which dirt may collect. It must be removable, so that it can 
be cleaned. The doors of the refrigerator must shut so tightly 
that frost or dew will not form about their edges on a hot day. 

122. Arrangement of Food in the Ice Box. Ice boxes 
are usually cooler at the bottom than at the top. Do not put 
food in the ice chamber because this necessitates opening the 
door and wastes ice. Do not put papers or flat boxes on the 
shelves which will interfere with the circulation of air in the 
refrigerator. 

123. Filling and Care of the Ice Box. The housewife 
must open the doors of the ice box as seldom as possible, and 
close them quickly. Do not cut off the circulation of air 
from the ice by wrapping it in a blanket or newspapers. It 
cannot do its work then. The ice box is kept cold by the 
gradual melting of the ice. The ice melts fastest as the tem- 
perature of the ice box rises. Covering the ice may keep it 
from melting, but it will also allow the refrigerator to get 
warm, and so, whatever is gained in saving ice at first, will be 
lost at the higher temperature and in cooling the box again. 
Steady melting does the most good. 



104 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

The shelves and drain pipe should be removable, and these 
and the refrigerator should be washed and thoroly scalded 
once in every two weeks. 

There is a saving in planning to open the refrigerator as 
little as possible. The filling of the ice box with a large piece 
of ice two or three times a week, rather than with a small 
piece every day, is more economical. 



CHAPTER XVII 

IcELESs Refrigerators; Water Coolers 

124. Comparative Efficiency of Iceless Refrigerators. 

In some localities, where it is difficult to, get ice often enough 
to pay for having a refrigerator, other devices have to be de- 
pended upon for keeping food cool. Except when cold run- 
ning water can be used in coolers, they do 
not take the place of refrigerators, because 
they cannot maintain the low tempera- 
ture of a good refrigerator. As a rule, 
the best of the makeshifts are about on 
a par with the poorer refrigerators. They 
are very useful in emergencies. 

125. Iceless Refrigerator. One of 

these devices is called the iceless refriger- 
ator (Fig. 58). It depends upon the evap- 
oration of water to make it cool. Water will evaporate 
sufficiently fast to cool a refrigerator enough to be of value 
only in a dry, hot, breezy place. Under the most ideal con- 
dition, an iceless refrigerator may hold as low a temperature 
as 65 degrees Fahrenheit, when the thermometer is register- 
ing above 90 degrees. 

This refrigerator consists of a cloth-covered frame and a 
device for keeping the cloth moistened with fresh water. 
Since wind or a good circulation of air helps in the evapora- 
tion of water, the iceless refrigerator must be placed where 




FlG.^ 58. Iceless re- 
frigerator. 




106 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

breezes may reach it, and it should be anchored so that it will 
not blow away. 

An iceless refrigerator may be made from a rectangular 
frame of wood, to which heavy canton flannel is buttoned or 
tacked. On the top of this should be placed a pan of water 
with strips of cloth extending from the water to the covering 
of the frame. This will conduct the water from the pan out 
onto the cloth. The number of strips of cloth regulate the 

rapidity with which the water is car- 
ried to the sides of the refrigerator. 
The food is set inside (Fig. 58.) The 
refrigerator should be placed in a shady 
spot where the breezes can strike it. 
Iceless refrigerators must be kept clean, 
^'cooUngfood!'" ^""^ and the covering of cloth should be 

washed occasionally. 
Some iceless refrigerators are enclosed in a chimney-like 
closet built on the house, the cold air coming in at the bot- 
tom and being drawn upward by the natural draft of the 
chimney-like structures. This draft hastens the evaporation 
of the water. Such refrigerators are expensive and less satis- 
factory than ice ones. 

126. Small Cooler. A few things may be kept cool, 
like a bottle of milk and a small dish of butter, by setting 
them in a shallow pan of water and covering them with a flan- 
nel cloth which comes down into the water and so remains 
moist (Fig. 59). The evaporation of the water from the flan- 
nel cools the food somewhat below the temperature of the 
surrounding air. 

127. Covered Pail. Another device is a metal pail (Fig. 



ICELESS REFRIGERATORS; WATER COOLERS 107 




Fig. 60. Cov- 
ered pail for 
cooling food. 



60) covered with a heavy layer of cloth and a pan set on top of 
the cover. Into the pan is put some water and strips of cloth 
to conduct out the water. This may be hung in the kitchen 
window if it is shaded. The cover and the 
strips must be secured so that they will not 
blow off. 

128. Unglazed Earthenware. Un- 
glazed earthenware pitchers and jugs make 
excellent water coolers. The water is put in 
them, and, as the container is porous, a small 
amount filters thru the earthenware, and, as 
it reaches the surface and air, it evaporates, 
cooling the remaining water. 

129. Cooling with Running Water. 
A very little stream of water from a faucet 
will cool the baby's milk and keep it from souring. The 
bottle should be set in a pan of water which is constantly 

renewed by the small stream running 
from the faucet. (Fig. 61.) This 
method of cooling should be used only 
in homes supplied with water from a 
spring or in an emergency. Under 
most circumstances, it is too extrava- 
gant a method of keeping food to be 
recommended. In cities it should be 
prohibited because it might cause too 
great a drain on the city water supply. 
A larger device used for cooling milk is a tank of running 
water (Figs. 61-a-6). The water flowing thru this tank 
commonly flows into another tank used for the watering of 




Fig. 61. Cooling with 
running water. 



108 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



stock. Cans with inverted covers like those illustrated are 
waterproof, because the air is caught inside them so that it 
cannot get out for the water to replace it. It does not require 

a large stream of water to re- 




m^ 



Fig. 61-a. Cross-section of cool- 
ing tank. 



new that in the tank and 
keep it cool. The efficiency 
of this device depends en- 
tirely upon having a supply 
of cold water available. 

130. Refrigerating Plants. Refrigerating plants are 
sometimes installed in private dwellings. These consist of a 
motor and a machine for compressing gas, a chamber which 
is to be cooled, and sometimes coils of pipe containing brine. 

When the gas — for example, am- 
monia or carbon dioxide — is com- 
pressed, it heats the pump which com- 
presses it. That is, when a liquid or 
gas is being compressed, it gives up 
heat. When a liquid or gas expands, it 
takes heat from somewhere. In refrig- 
erating plants, the expanding gas is 
made to take the heat either directly 
from the refrigerator or storeroom, or from brine which is' 
then used for cooling the refrigerator or room. Refrigerat- 
ing plants require the same care as pumps, motors and re- 
frigerators. 

131. Water Coolers. Since ice is not always pure, it 
is necessary to use cooling devices which do not permit it to 
come into direct contact with the water. One type of water 
cooler consists of a can set in an ice box with a pipe leading 




Fig. 61-& 
tank. 



ICELESS REFRIGERATORS; WATER COOLERS 



109 



to the outside so that the box does not have to be opened 
every time that water is wanted (Fig. 62). This can should 
be made so that it may be removed, washed and scalded. 
Another cooler consists of a tank or water bottle placed on 
the outside of a refrigerator or box of ice with a pipe leading 




Fig. 62. Water cooler con- 
taining water tank. 




Fig. 63. Sectional view of 
water cooler. 



thru the refrigerator or box of ice (Fig. 63). The water flow- 
ing thru the pipe is cooled. The pipe ends at the outside of 
the ice box with a faucet to let out the water. This cooler 
cools only the water flowing into the pipe instead of the entire 
tank of water. 

132. Care of Water Coolers. Put only clean, pure 
water into the coolers, and keep them clean by flushing them 
out occasionally with boiling water. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

Fans and Ventilators 

133. Selecting a Fan. With the coming of electricity 
into the home, fans have become practical home devices. Do 
not buy a fan or other electrical device without ascertaining 
whether the current is direct or alternating, and what voltage 
is needed to run it. Most city homes are now supplied with 
current ranging between 105 and 115 volts, so most fans are 





Fig. 64. Blower. Fig. 65. Stationary fan. 

made for that. Fans will run on a small wire like that used 
for lighting. 

134. The Construction of the Fan in Common Use. 
A motor turns the fan. There is a regulator on some fans, so 
that they can be run at different rates of speed. Oil cups are 
important parts of fans. When a new fan is purchased, these 
cups are full of oil. The oil will last for many months, but if 
an old fan heats and sparks while being run, have an elec- 
trician examine it to see if all the parts are in order and there 



FANS AND VENTILATORS 



111 



is a supply of oil. Figs. 64, 65 and 66 show types of fans in 
common use. 

135. Ventilator. A hood (Fig. 67) with a pipe leading 
into the chimney, placed over a cook stove, will conduct hot 





Fig. 66. Movable electric fan. 



Fig. 67. Stove ventilator. 



air and steam up the chimney. This is due to the fact that 
warm air rises and cold air comes in to take its place. An 
open skylight over a cook stove, also, makes an excellent ven- 
tilator and cooling device for kitchens. 

Questions for Part IV 

1. How may refrigerators be judged for efficiency? 

2. What are the essentials of a good refrigerator? 

3. How is an iceless refrigerator cooled? Under what conditions is 
it useful? 

4. What may be the matter with an electric fan when it heats and 
sparks? 



PART V 

Water Supply and Sewage Disposal. 

CHAPTER XIX 
Pumps and Water Filters 

136. Suction Pumps. A pump is a device for lifting 
water. The pumps in common use work on the principle 
that water which is under the pressure of air will rise to fill a 
vacuum or a partial vacuum. The pump is composed of a- 
combination of valves and a piston for forcing the air out of 
the pipe to allow the water from below to be forced into it. A 
valve catches the water as it starts to flow back. The weight 
of the water holds the valve closed. 

An outlet above the piston permits the water to flow into a 
tank or sink when the piston is again lifted to make a new 
vacuum and draw more water (Fig. 68). 

137. Care of Pumps. The leather or material forming 
the piston must be kept moist, or it will shrink and leak. 
When it becomes worn and old, it must be renewed. It is not 
a difficult task to put new packing on a small suction pump. 
To do this, remove the pin attaching the piston to the handle. 
Lift out the piston, unscrew the bolt which holds the leather 
packing in place; put on the new packing, and replace the 
bolt, piston and pin. 

Always pump with a regular, even stroke — a jerky one 
tends to wear the working parts of the pump. 

The cylinder and pipe containing water must not be al- 
lowed to freeze. There is usually a plug in the pipe which 



PUMPS AND WATER FILTERS 



113 



may be removed to let out the water when there is danger of 
freezing. A cracked cyhnder or pipe will leak air and not 
raise water. 

Keep the bearings for the handle well oiled. When the 

pump gets old, the cylinder 
becomes worn and leaks. It 
can sometimes be replaced 
with a new cylinder, or more 
packing must be put on the 
piston. 




Fig. 68. Suction pump. 




Fig. 69. Force pump. 



138. Force Pumps. Force pumps are used on deep wells 
and in forcing water into storage tanks. They should be kept 
oiled; they should be operated with an even stroke, and the 
packing in them should be renewed if they leak air. In force 
pumps, the valves differ in their arrangement from suction 
pumps (Fig. 69). 

139. Compressed- Air Pumps. Compressed-air pumps 
consist of a tank for storing the compressed air — a pump to 
force air into the tank and cylinders equipped with valves. 



114 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



These act automatically. Whenever an outlet pipe is opened, 
the extra pressure of air from the storage tank raises the water 
from the well or cistern (Fig. 70). Air should be kept in the 
pressure tank. 
When this arrangement is used, open and close faucets 




Fig. 70. Compressed-air pump system. 

slowly, not with a jerk. Fig. 70-a shows plumbing where 
such a system is used. 

140. Water Filters. Water filters are devices for strain- 
ing minute particles out of water. They are made of sand, 
charcoal or porcelain, kisselguhr and other materials. They 
are without value unless they are kept clean. A dirty filter is 
worse than none. Almost the only way to clean them is to 
sterilize them or put new material in them. Only with ex- 
pert care can filters be made effective for removing disease 



PUMPS AND WATER FILTERS 



115 




Fig. 70-a. System of plumbing with compressed-air tank. 



116 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

germs. A dirty filter may prove a menace. Filters are val- 
uable for removing coarse dirt from the water. 

Filters on faucets should be cleaned or renewed every day. 
Large filters for rain water should be renewed every few 
months. 



CHAPTER XX 

Pressure Tanks; Plumbing Fixtures 

141. Pressure Tanks. A pressure tank is a device for 
storing water under pressure. It is usually placed in the 
basement of dwelling houses. 

142. Construction of the Pressure Tank. The tank 
is tight and strong, so that it will hold air and water under 
pressure. The tank originally has some air in it. When the 
water is pumped in, the air not being able to escape, is com- 
pressed . When there is a chance for water to escape from the 
tank which is connected to water pipes, the pressure of the 
compressed air on the water forces it to upstairs rooms and 
other points. To this tank is attached a pressure gage 
which indicates the amount of pressure; or, in other words, 
the amount of water in the tank, for when the water gets low, 
the pressure is reduced unless the air has escaped. A glass 
gage shows the height of water. Provision is made to let 
some air into the tank, for otherwise it may in time be all 
forced out of the tank or absorbed by the water. The water 
in a pressure tank may be used to pump water from a cistern 
into another tank. 

143. Care of Pressure Tanks! A pressure tank must 
not be pumped up to the extent that the pressure becomes 
greater than the strength of the tank. A safety valve is used 
in controlling the pressure. 

144. Hot-Water Kitchen Tank. A force pump is gen- 
erally used for pumping water into kitchen tanks, except 



118 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



when water from another tank, such as a city reservoir, flows 

into it. 

145. Instantaneous Water Heaters. The instanta- 
neous water heater (Fig. 71) is 
a device which heats water on 
its way to the outlet. It is 
composed of a heating unit and 
piping connected to the outlet 
pipes. In this type of heater, 
the pipes must always be kept 
full of water, and some device 
should be attached (Fig. 72) 
to the heater which will low- 
er the heat as soon as, or 





Fig. 71. Instantaneous water 
heater. 



Fig. 72. Device for heating 
water automatically. 



before, the water reaches boiling temperature. This will 
prevent steam from forming, which might injure the system. 
146. Heaters for Tanks. Hot water is lighter than 
cold. A pipe from the bottom of the tank leads into the 
heater, passes thru the heating coils and up into the top of the 
tank (Figs. 73 and 74). Water from the tank circulates thru 
this pipe as the hot water rises and the cold water falls in the 
tank. As the heater is located on a level with the bottom of 
the tank, cold water seeking this level flows into the pipe and 
becomes heated (Fig. 76). 



PRESSURE TANKS; PLUMBING FIXTURES 



119 



A booster is a device which keeps the water hot up to the 
faucet (Fig. 75). If there is a pilot on a gas water heater, 
be sure to use it. The burners should be cared for in the 
same way as on other heaters using the same fuel. Keep the 
tank full of water and the 
water free to circulate 
thru the pipes. Air-tight 
tanks may become so hot 
that steam is formed in 
large amounts. Tanks 
which are not connected 
with city water pipes may 
be fitted with safety valves 
which open when the pres- 
sure of steam inside the 
tank reaches a certain 
point, which is below the 
danger point. 

Should the pipes or tank freeze, do not start the fire in the 
heater, but thaw the pipes with applications of hot water or 
other means until the water can circulate in them. 

Electric heaters are usually incased in a waterproof cover- 
ing and put in the center of the tank. Small electric heaters 
are in use for heating a glass or other small amount of water. 
These are called immersion heaters. 

147. The Elevated Water Tank. In rural homes, water 
is sometimes stored in an elevated tank. This is usually 
placed in the attic. It is frequently filled by means of a force 
pump connected with a windmill or gasoline engine. If there 
is no overflow to this tank, which there should be, it must be 




Fig. 73. Force pump and boiler. 



120 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



watched when being filled to prevent it from overflowing. It 
may be fitted with an automatic device similar to those used 




Fig. 74. Water heater and tank. Fig. 75. Booster for hot water. 



on the expansion tanks of hot-water furnaces or tanks to 
water closets for regulating the inflow of water. 

148. Faucets. Faucets are made in different patterns, 
but they need practically the same care (Fig. 77). The leather, 
or rubber, washer in a faucet must be renewed when it leaks. 
To renew the washer, unscrew the cap from the faucet. Re- 
move the valve. Take off the ring of packing. Replace 
with a new ring, and put the faucet together again. The only 
tools needed for this repair work are a wrench and a screw- 



PRESSURE TANKS; PLUMBING FIXTURES 121 




Fig. 76. Water tank and heater. 



122 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



driver. Shut off the water from the pipe to the faucet before 
beginning to repair a leaking faucet. 

149. Valves. Valves are constructed much like faucets. 





Fig. 77. Faucet showing 
parts. 



Fig. 78. Radi- 
ator valve. 



They, too, sometimes need repacking. Follow the direc- 
tions for repacking of faucet (Fig. 78). 

150. Overflows. Keep overflows clean. When the plug 




Fig. 79. Cross-section of overflow 
on bath-tub. 



Fig. 80. Plumber's pump. 



and overflow are combined, as they sometimes are, lift out 
the cylinder forming the plug and overflow and wash it. 
When it fails to hold water in the tub or basin, it may need 



PRESSURE TANKS; PLUMBING FIXTURES 123 

a new washer on the lower part. This may be replaced very 
easily. Fig. 79 shows one type of overflow. 

It is more difficult to keep other overflows clean. They 
may be flushed or cleaned with a brush attached to a wire. 

151. Traps for Bath Tubs and Basins. Dirt and 
slime collects in traps. Clean them frequently. Always 
leave clean water in the traps of bathroom fixtures and 
sinks. Only matter quickly soluble in water should pass 
into drain pipes. Keep matches, hair, sweepings, rags, fruit 
skins and stones out of the fixtures. 

If the drain from a basin, sink or tub fails to carry away the 
water, the stoppage may be removed with a small plumber's 
pump (Fig. 80). This is a small rubber cone-like device 
which is placed over the outlet to the drain and moved up and 
down so that it sucks air, water and whatever may be mov- 
able up the pipe. 



CHAPTER XXI 
Cesspools, Septic Tanks and City Sewer Systems 

152. Relative Value of Cesspool and Septic Tank. 

Sewer pipes for private water systems usually drain into cess- 
pools or septic tanks (Figs. 81, and 81-a). The waste goes thru 
a process of decomposition before passing out into the soil. 




Fig. 81. Septic tank and tile. 

Sewage should both liquify and oxidize before entering into 
the soil. Oxidation purifies liquid sewage so that it is not 
contaminating. If oxidation is not brought about in the 
cesspool or septic tank, sewage, which is fresh, should be run 
onto the surface of the ground where the air and bacteria for 
oxidation can be found. Cesspools are not as good as septic 
tanks because there is not the surety of sewage being oxidized 
in them, as there is in the septic tank. They lack oxidizing 
chambers. 



CESSPOOLS, SEPTIC TANKS, SEWER SYSTEMS 125 



Unoxidized liquid sewage being in a condition to flow read- 
ily thru the earth, is more dangerous than fresh sewage be- 
cause it is more likely to seep into wells. 

153. Construction of the Septic Tank. The septic 
tank is composed of two chambers — one the liquefying cham- 
ber and the other the oxi- 



dizing chamber. Both are 
water-tight (Fig. 82) . The 
fresh sewage comes into 
the liquefying chamber 
thru a pipe placed near the 
top of the tank. Here it 
stands and liquefies, which 
is a process of decomposi- | 
tion. The solids fall to the 
bottom as they come into 
this chamber, and the 
liquid formed rises to the 
top and flows into the oxi- 
dizing chamber (B, Fig. 82), when it reaches a point a little be- 
low the height of the inlet pipe. It either does this by flow- 
ing over a partition or thru a pipe leading from one compart- 
ment to the other. 

The second compartment is usually slightly smaller than 
the first. Here the sewage is held until the process of oxida- 
tion takes place, which renders it less dangerous. When the 
sewage in the second chamber reaches a certain height, it 
siphons out into a tile which distributes it over a plot of 
ground (Fig. 81). 

Various kinds of siphons are used, the important feature of 




Fig. 81-a. Septic tank. 



126 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



them being that they are constructed so that they drain the 
tank often enough to remove the oxidized sewage and not so 
often as to remove it before it has become oxidized. 

154. The Size of Tank. Because the hquid must be 
drained from the tank at certain intervals, it is important that 



-OPEN COVE n 



CLOSBD COVER. 




Fig. 82. Details of septic tank. 

the size of the tank be adapted to the amount of waste it 
will receive. 

Septic tanks are kept warm by the heat generated in the 
oxidizing process, which is simply slow burning of the waste, 
so that they rarely freeze in winter. 

Run waste water from the kitchen sink and laundry tubs 
into a catch basin to collect the grease from the water, as 
grease or oil on the surface of the sewage of a tank will stop 
the action of the microbes in the tank by smothering them. 

When too much grease does get into it, the tank must be 
thoroly cleaned. 

Do not use lye, chloride of lime, carbolic acid and other 
chemicals in drains and septic tanks. Disinfectants of this 



CESSPOOLS, SEPTIC TANKS, SEWER SYSTEMS 127 

type put into pipes leading to a septic tank will kill the useful 
bacteria which decompose the sewage. 

Use clear boiling water to clean the pipes. This will be 
cooled by the time it reaches the tank so that it will not kill 
the useful bacteria. 

Insoluble mineral matter gradually accumulates in septic 
tanks, so that they must be cleaned once every few years. 
Care will postpone the times for cleaning. 

Do not wash vegetables with much earth adhering to them 
in sinks leading to cesspools or septic tanks. Shake or rinse 
off the dirt before washing them. 

155. Disposal of Waste in Cities. In some cities, 
householders are required by law to have catch basins con- 
nected to their sewer systems to remove leaves and dirt from 
storm water and grease from kitchen sinks and laundry tubs. 
The laws of other cities forbid the use of catch basins, but urge 
householders to help care for the city sewer system by not 
putting grease into sewer pipes. 

Strong chemicals should not be put into the pipes. Use 
only boiling water in cleaning pipes. Do not wash vege- 
tables on which there is much loose dirt in sinks. 



CHAPTER XXII 
Water Closets 

156. Construction of Water Closets. The water closet 
is a device for the disposal of excrement. The closet includes 
a tank of water for flushing the waste from the bowl to the 
sewer or waste pipe. Between the bowl and the waste pipe is 
a device called a trap which holds water and seals the end of 
the waste pipe so that gases from the sewer or the septic tank 
cannot come into the house. (Fig. 83 -a.) 

The bowl of the newer models of water closets have the trap 
as a part of the bowl, which saves joints and connections 
likely to catch dirt and stop up the trap (Fig. 83). The 
water coming from the flushing tank is carried around the 
bowl so that it is flushed clean by the swift-flowing water. 
When the water reaches the bottom of the bowl, it rushes 
upward a few inches before it can turn downward to the 
waste pipe. This it does while flowing rapidly and cleansing 
the bowl; when the tank empties, water collects in the bowl to 
the level, where it can flow down the waste pipe (Fig. 83). As 
soon as all the water above this level has gone down the pipe, 
the remainder stays in the bowl, forming the seal until the 
next time the bowl is flushed. Fig. 83-a shows two kinds of 
traps. 

If water flows at too rapid a rate thru the trap of the bowl, 
as in cases when there is too much pressure on the water or 
the tank is set too high so that gravity gives it too much force, 
or if an excessive suction is produced in the drain pipe, all the 
water may run out of the bowl, leaving the trap unsealed. 



WATER CLOSETS 



129 





The remedy for this is a change in the flushing tank or in its 
position. 

157. S iphoning the Trap . If rags or shreds of material 
are dropped into the bowl and lodge in the trap, only a part of 
them going over into the waste pipe, they 
may siphon the water, sealing the trap, over 
into the waste pipe. There was more diffi- 
culty of this sort with traps of older models 
than with the newer types. Always leave 
clean water in the trap. 

158. The Flushing Tank. L_ 
The flushing tank (Fig. 84) is fig. 83. Section 
a reservoir to hold sufficient ^^ ^^*^" ^^°'^*- 
water to cleanse the bowl. In one type of 
tank, water is retained in the tank by a plug 
held in place by the weight of the water in the 
tank. By a lever on the outside of the tank, 
this plug is lifted when the bowl is to be flush- 
FiG 83-a. Types ^^> ^^^ ^^ stays open until all the water flows 
of traps. Q^^ Qf lY^^Q tank. When the water has all left 

the tank, the plug falls back into the hole and fresh water 
flowing into the tank holds it in place, as there is nothing in 
the pipe below to make it float upward. 

Working at the same time with the plug is a valve in the 
water supply pipe, attached to a large hollow float. The 
valve opens as the water flows out of the tank, and closes as 
the tank is filled. This valve is operated by the float floating 
on the surface of the water. As the water flows out of the 
tank, the float falls, opening the valve and letting in water. 
As the tank fills, the float rises to the top of the tank and 




130 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



shuts off the valve. If the float catches so that it fails to rise 
and fall, or becomes disconnected from the valve, it will not 
operate the valve. There is an overflow pipe in the tank 
which carries off all water rising above a certain level in the 
tank. This prevents the tank from overflowing when the 
valve fails to turn. 

159. Repairing the Flushing Tank. When the water 

continues to flow into the tank, take off the cover of the tank 

and examine the valve and ball to see 

why they are not working properly. If 

disconnected or caught, remedy the 

trouble. If the plug fails to stop the 

flow of water out of the tank, water will 

Fig. 84. Diagram of also continue to flow into the tank. To 
flushing tank. t ^ ■ 

remedy this temporarily, push the plug 
down over the outlet and also note the reason why it has not 
fallen back automatically. If worn, it may have to be re- 
placed with a new one. 

There should be a valve to close the pipe to the tank. With 
this valve, much water can be saved in time of trouble, and 
greater convenience may be had in remedying difficulties 
with the devices inside the tank. 




Questions for Part V 



1. How does a pump lift water from a well? 

2. How do pumps differ in construction? 

3. What care should be given a pump? 

4. When is a water filter useful? When dangerous? 

5. What is a pressure tank? How does it operate? 

6. Describe two kinds of water heaters. What precautions should 
be taken with each kind of heater? 



QUESTIONS 131 

7. Describe a water faucet. Try to replace an old washer with a 
new one. 

8. Have you ever cleaned the overflow to a tub or basin? Should 
they be cleaned? 

9. What are traps? "What may cause them to fail to work? 

10. How would you select a good trap? How would you clean it? 

11. Describe the construction of a septic tank. What is the action 
that takes place in a septic tank? What care should be given to it? 

12. Examine the tank to a water closet. How does it operate? 



PART VI 
Laundry Equipment. 

CHAPTER XXIII 

Washing Machines 

160. Kinds of Washing Machines. Washing machines 
are tools to help remove dirt from clothes either by friction or 
by forcing water thru them. They are known by such names 
as suction, cylinder, rotary, oscillating, locomotive and cen- 





FiG. 85. Washer to place in boiler. 



Fig. 86. Another type of washer 
for boiler. 



trifugal machines. These names are used differently by va- 
rious authorities. 

Washing machines may be attached to any kind of motor, 
or they may be manipulated by hand. 

161. Suction Machines. The suction machines are 
made to force water thru the clothes (Figs. 85 and 86). Some 
are operated by hand, some by mechanical power, and some 
are funnel-shaped devices to be placed in boilers. 

Hand or mechanical suction machines have cones or fun- 
nels which are pushed down onto the clothes and then sud- 
denly lifted, causing suction which draws out the dirt pre- 



WASHING MACHINES 



133 




Fig. 87. Suction washer. 



viously loosened by the moisture and pressiire. Mechanical 
devices attached to the top are sometimes used to raise and 
lower the funnels (Figs. 87 and 87-a). 

The suction washers for use in boilers are placed funnel side 
down. By means of these, the steam 
forming in the bottom of the boiler 
forces the water thru the clothes. 
Distribute the clothes evenly about 
the washer. Fill the boiler with 
water and add shaved soap. When 
set over a fire, the steam forming at 
the bottom raises the water in the funnel to the top and 

pushes it out thru the clothes, or 

raises the funnel and makes it 
beat upon the clothes. 

Other machines combine the 
two methods of washing — 
forcing water thru clothes and 
rubbing them at the same time. 
162. Cylinder Washers. Cy- 
linder washers contain a perfor- 
ated barrel-like device, into which 
the clothes are placed (Fig. 88). 
This cylinder has cleats on the in- 
side to raise the clothes as the cylinder turns and drop them 
when they reach the highest point in it, back into the water, 
thus poimding water thru them and rubbing them against 
the side of the cylinder as they are raised. This is the type 
used in most laundries. A cylinder turned by an electric 
motor is made which can be placed in the stationary wash 




Fig. 87-a. Washing machine. 



134 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



tub in small apartments. The tub then serves as the outer 
part of the washing machine. . 

163. Rotary Washers. In the rotary, or milk-stool, type 

, of washer, sometimes called 
-^ - jM. "Dolly" (Fig. 89), the stool-like 

contrivance which presses 
against the clothes must be 
turned half-way around in one 
direction, and then back the 
other way, to prevent twisting, 
tearing or otherwise injuring 
the clothes. The clothes are thus 
rubbed against the corrugated 
sides and bottom of the ma- 
chine, and thru the water. Never 
put too many clothes in this type 
of machine because too tight 




Fig. 88. Cylinder washer. 



packing causes the machine 
to tear ttiem. 

164. Machine with 
an Oscillating Washing 
D e vie e . This washer con- 
tains an oscillating device 
for rubbing the clothes 
over the corrugated bot- 
tom. The rubbing device 
is also corrugated and is 
put on top of the clothes 
and moved backward and forward, thus rubbing them 
between two wash-boards (Fig. 90). 




Fig. 89. Rotary washer. 



WASHING MACHINES 



135 



165. Oscillating Washers. Oscillating washers have 
corrugated bottoms. The clothes are put into the machine 
with the wash water. The 
washer rocks, throwing the clothes 
backward and forward thru the 
water, loosening and squeezing 
out the dirt. This washer works 
easiest when the machine is well 
filled with water. 

166. Locomotive Washer. 
The locomotive washer (Fig. 91) 
slides backward and forward, thus 
churning the water and clothes. It is operated only by power. 




Fig. 90. Oscillating wash- 
ing machine. 




*«.*>«SSB 



Fig. 91. Locomotive washing machine. 



A heating unit, usually gas, in the base of the machine 
keeps the water hot. 

167. Centrifugal Washer. A centrifugal washer (Fig. 



136 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

91-a) contains a perforated basket which whirls in the water 
contained in the machine. The clothes are placed in the bas- 
ket, rolled into bundles. The rapid whirling thru the water 
removes the dirt from the clothes. 

168. Care of Washers. The bearings and other motor 
parts of a washing machine should be kept oiled. Keep belts 



Fig. 91-a. Centrifugal washing machine. 

tight. Run the machine about ten minutes each while the 
clothes are in the first wash water and the two sudsy waters, 
and five minutes each for the hot and the cold rinse waters. 
Blueing had better be done in a tub. 

Wooden machines must dry out occasionally, or else they 
get slimy. Do not let them get dry enough to crack. Air 
the machines after use. Cover them when not in use to keep 
them clean. 



WASHING MACHINES 137 

When a gasoline engine is used in operating a washing ma- 
chine, it must be set so that the belt will pull straight on the 
pulley wheel of the machine. The belt should be tight enough 
to prevent slipping. Stationary washers are set to avoid 
such troubles, but those which are moved from place to place 
must be adjusted by the operator. 

The pulleys must be adjusted to turn at the number of 
revolutions per minute directed for the washer used. This 
usually does not exceed 150 revolutions of the motor wheel 
per minute. 

Water motors must receive more than 25 pounds of water 
pressure to operate a washing machine. 



CHAPTER XXIV 
Wringers 

169. Roller Wringer. The kind of wringer in most gen- 
eral use is the one made of two rollers rotating in opposite 
directions, the clothes being drawn in between the two by- 
friction, and the water pressed out. (See Fig. 88.) 

The rollers in modern wringers are made of a composition 
of rubber. They are adjusted so that they may be brought 
close together or moved apart. When wringing thin articles, 
the rollers should be set close together, and when wringing 
heavy articles, they should be set far apart. This adjust- 
ment of the wringer helps to do better work and save wear 
and tear on clothing and wringer. 

170. Care of Wringers. The bearings should be kept 
oiled, but oil must be kept off the rollers, as it rots them. 
Keep the rollers washed clean. Soap and water will remove 
the dirt which collects on them. If this does not clean them, 
wipe the rollers in a weak solution of ammonia. 

If the rollers get badly stained, wipe them with a cloth 
dipped in kerosene. Wash this off immediately, as kerosene 
dissolves the rubber as well as the dirt. 

Never leave a wringer with the pressure on the rollers when 
not in use. The pressure is either adjusted by thumb-screws 
or by a clamp. Loosen these when thru with the wringer. 

171. Centrifugal Wringer, or Dryer. The centrifugal 
wringer, or dryer, consists of a tub, inside of which is a smaller 
tub with perforated sides. There is a drain at the bottom of 
the outside tub. The wringer is attached to a device for 



WRINGERS 



139 



making the inside tub turn rapidly. The power used is either 
hand or machine (Fig. 92). 

The rapid turning of the inner tub for three minutes throws 
the clothing and water in them to the outside of the revolving 
center. This tub being perforated, lets the water thru while 
retaining the clothing. Thus, the clothes are wrung as dry as 




Fig. 92. Washer and dryer. 



in a wringer of the roller type. If the machine is turned a 
longer time, the clothes can be wrung entirely dry. 

172. Care of the Machine. When loading centrifugal 
wringers, put the heavy pieces at the bottom of the basket. 
Put articles in basket in bunches, and pack fairly tight. Do 
not have loose ends hanging out. Fold sleeves into garments. 
Load the basket full if there are clothes enough. A cover 
helps to hold the clothes in place. Load so that it runs even 
and does not wobble. 

Never hold your hand on the extractor after it has started. 



140 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

173. Combination Washer and Wringer. The centrif- 
ugal washer and wringer combined is built so that the basket 
can be lowered into a tub of water. The clothes rotating in 
water are washed. After this is accomplished, the cylinder 
is raised, and, when rotated, serves as a wringer of the centri- 
fugal type. 

Load the washer with fewer clothes than for wringing. 
Roll each garment into a bunch before putting it into the 
washer. 

Centrifugal wringers are used also as dry-cleaning machines. 
For this use, they should be operated out of doors and at a 
slower speed than when water is used. Friction heats gaso- 
line, causing it to evaporate rapidly. The friction between 
clothing, tub and gasoline when turned at a high speed may 
produce a spark which will ignite the gasoline. 



CHAPTER XXV 
Mangles and Irons 

174. Construction of Mangles. Mangles are made of 
rollers rotating in the same direction, one moving faster than 
the other, set close together so that they press the clothes 
smooth, or they consist of one roller rotating over a stationary 
surface called a shoe (Fig. 93). 

175. Cold Mangles. When no heater is attached to the 
shoe or one roller, the mangle is a cold mangle. It smoothes 
clothes, but does not do as good work 

as a heated mangle. There is almost 
nothing about mangles to get out of 
order. The only caution necessary is 
to keep the bearings oiled, have 
guards so as not to catch hands in 
the power machines, and loosen the 
roller so that it is not pressed onto 
any surface when not in use. 

176. Heated Mangles. The 
heated mangles have the heat applied 
to one of the rollers or to the shoe. They may be used cold. 
The heat may come from gasoline, gas, electricity or kerosene. 
The management of the heating unit is the same as for a 
stove using any of these fuels. The same care should be 
taken of the burners as of stove burners. 

177. Care and Use of Mangles. (1) Have the clothes 
damp before putting them thru the mangle. (2) Protect the 
mangle from dust at all times. (3) See that belts are properly 




Fig. 93. Mangle. 



142 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



adjusted on mangles. (4) The covering put on mangle rollers 
must be of even thickness, or they will not do good work. (5) 
Do not mangle starched garments, or those on which are 
many or large buttons. (6) Wax the steel roller while it is 
warm, and wipe it clean with a cloth (Fig. 94). (7) Always 
remove pressure when not using mangles. 

178. Flat, or Sadirons. Irons are of two kinds — those 
which must be heated on a stove, and the self -heating ones. 

The weight of the iron governs the 
amount of heat it will absorb, and 
this is the amount that it will give 
up in ironing. Heat is needed to 
dry clothes, and as the cloth can be 
smoothed best when damp, but will 
wrinkle again unless dried while 
smooth, heat is essential to the iron- 
ing process. 

The weight of the iron helps in 
the smoothing process. The heavy 
Fig. 94. Waxing roller of irons do the best grade of work, but 

are harder to manipulate. The 
most satisfactory iron for a woman of average strength to 
manage weighs six to eight pounds. 

The following points should be remembered in using the 
iron: (1) Rub rusty irons with bees'-wax or paraffine and 
wipe with a cloth. (2) Wash irons frequently, and rub with 
sand soap, Dutch cleanser, ashes or salt to polish them. (3) 
Rinse in boiling water and wipe dry. Warm on the stove and 
rub with bees'-wax, and set away. (4) Before using, wipe 
with a cloth. (5) Do not wash electric irons — rub with wax 




MANGLES AND IRONS 



143 



or paraffine. Wipe off with a clean cloth. (6) It has been 
found by tests that the time required in heating the self -heat- 
ing iron usually equals the time required for the iron to cool 
after the heating has been stopped, but 
that an iron cools faster on wet, heavy 
cloth than on thin, dry cloth. 

179. Charcoal Irons. Charcoal is 
no longer used for heating irons. It makes 
too much dirt. Difficulty is found, also, 
in keeping charcoal irons at a constant 
temperature, 

180. Electric Irons. An electric iron 
(Fig. 95) is made up of a heavy nickel- 
plated base, a block of iron which holds 
the heat, and a heating unit of small wires, 
or a plate, thru which the current passes, -pia. 95. Pa^^f 
meeting resistance. Since resistance electric iron, 
against the flow of an electric current produces heat, the iron 
is heated. It has a handle and shell covering the heating unit 
to protect the hand and prevent loss of heat thru the top. 

Getting electric irons too hot injures the heating unit, as 
electricity can heat metals so hot that they melt. Excessive 
heat may disconnect the circuit by burning the wires in the 
iron, or it may melt the metal so as to form a short circuit. 

Always follow exactly the directions for connecting and 
disconnecting the iron with the current. Some say discon- 
nect at the plug between iron and cord, or others the plug 
placed near the socket (Fig. 95-a) . The weakest part in irons 
is likely to be in the attachment plug. When connecting the 
plug to the iron, be sure to get it back in place each time. A 

10 




144 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

plug that does not fit well into place may cause sparking and 
develop sufficient heat to burn off the insulation from the 
cord, if not the fuses of the system to which the iron is at- 
tached. 

Never attach an iron to a lighting system without making 
sure that the iron is made to be operated on the voltage of the 
current to which is is connected. If it is not the same, at- 
taching the iron may either burn out the fuses of the lighting 
system, or ruin the iron. 

Operate the iron at a good temperature for ironing, and 

take care to keep it from getting 
hotter than is required. 

181. Gas Irons. Gas irons 
are attached to a tube leading 
from a gas pipe. There is a 
burner inside the iron which is 

Fig. 95-a. Connecting plug for generally a straight rod with 
electric attachment. o ^ o 

perforations in it for the escape 
of the mixture of gas and air. The air mixes with the gas at a 
point near where the gas pipe enters the iron. The principle 
of heating an iron is the same as the heating of a gas stove 
(Fig. 96). 

The burner in the iron is lighted, and as soon as it has 
heated the iron, the ironing can proceed. The only diffi- 
culties encountered in using this kind of an iron are that a 
quick, jerky stroke may blow out the flame, and if the work is 
being done in a drafty place, the iron may not heat evenly. 
These difficulties can be overcome, however. The person 
using the iron can learn to use a stroke which will be rapid and 
still not put out the flame. The ironing board may be pro- 




MANGLES AND IRONS 145 

tected from drafts. A gas iron is safe and practical. It is 
easily controlled by the valve admitting the gas. 

182. Acetylene Irons. Acetylene irons are similar to 
gas irons, the difference in them being in the construction of 
the burner, 

183 . Alcohol Irons . Alcohol irons have a tank attached 
to them which holds about a half pint of alcohol. This iron 
is similar to the gasoline iron shown in Fig. 97. Some alcohol 
is turned into the iron, and then the valve is closed. This al- 
cohol is lighted with a match and used to heat the generator 





Fig. 96. Gas iron. Fig. 97. Alcohol iron. 



in the iron so that it will be hot enough to change the alcohol 
into vapor. As soon as this is done, the alcohol is again 
turned on and lighted. The burners in these irons should be 
kept free from dirt. Like gas irons, they should be used with 
a stroke which will not put out the fire. They cannot be op- 
erated in a strong draft. The heat in them can be regulated 
by the valve which controls the flow of alcohol. 

184. Gasoline Irons. There are two kinds of gasoline 
irons. In one the tank is a part of the iron (Fig. 97), and in 
the other the tank is many feet away, where the gasoline is 
changed to gas by a cold-process gasoline gas machine and 
connected with the iron by a flexible tube. These latter op- 
erate like other gas irons. 



146 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

Gasoline irons with the tank attached are operated the 
same as alcohol irons. The danger in these irons comes 
in the tanks becoming overheated. Alcohol is used first to 
heat the generator because it will not smoke the iron. The 
gasoline, when lighted, should burn with a blue flame. 

The tank should be one which has been tested to stand a 
high gas pressure, as the gasoline in the tank may become 
heated and vaporize. The gas so formed must not escape 
into the room, where it might be ignited by a spark. If not 
allowed to escape, it exerts considerable pressure inside the 
tank. If the pressure becomes too great, it will break the 
tank, escape and ignite from the flame in the iron. The open- 
ing for filling must always be kept closed when the iron is in 
use. 

QuESl'iONS FOR Part VI 

1. Explain the construction of various types of washing machines. 
What are the advantages of each? 

2. What care should a roller wringer receive? 

3. How does a centrifugal wringer dry clothes? 

4. How does a mangle differ from a wringer? 

5. What is the difference in care that should be given to a plain flat 
iron and an electric iron? 



PART VII 

House-Cleaning Equipment 

CHAPTER XXVI 
Vacuum Cleaners and Cleaning Tools 

185. Principle Upon Which Vacuum Cleaner Works. 

The principle of a vacuum cleaner is that, thru suction, dust 
and dirt are drawn from the floor or other surfaces into some 
container. If the power of the cleaner is sufficient, it may 




Fig. 98. Brush and vacuum cleaner combined. 

pick up anything — but cleaners having a moderate amount of 
power are somewhat more discriminating. They do, how- 
ever, remove the fine, greasy dirt that brooms, brushes and 
carpet sweepers fail to get. The coarser dirt and ravelings 
may be taken up by a carpet sweeper, with a brush, or picked 
up by hand. The brush is combined with the cleaner in many 
machines (Fig. 98). 



148 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

186. Different Kinds of Vacuum Cleaners. There are 
cleaners with bellows, pumps or fans to draw in air and dirt. 
The ones with bellows in them work on the principle of a bel- 
lows which is reversed so that when the air is drawn in, it 
brings the dirt with it. The other kind works with a fan 
which draws or sucks air from the floor thru a nozzle into the 
machine. In the machine, the dust is filtered out of the air 
and collected in a pan. 

The machines with fans in them are mostly power ma- 
chines, as the fan must revolve very rapidly. The hand ma- 
chines are mostly of the pump and bellows types. Some are 
combined with the carpet sweeper, making two machines in 
one. With this device once going over the floor is sufficient 
for removing both coarse and fine dirt. The hand machines 
do not have as much power of suction as the power machines, 
but they do very satisfactory work. They are more effective 
than a carpet sweeper in removing dirt, but they do not get as 
much of it as the stationary cleaner. Removing the sharp 
grit from rugs and carpets lengthens the life of them so that 
the more grit a cleaner can remove without tearing the carpet, 
the more valuable it is. 

When the pump type is being used, the piston is drawn up, 
drawing with it air and the dirt which is present at the point 
from which the air comes. A cloth filters out the dust. The 
air escapes from the machine before the piston is lowered to 
draw in more air and dirt. If this were not true, the dust 
would be forced back as the piston was lowered. 

187. Nozzle of Vacuum Cleaner. The nozzle, or point 
of entry of air into the machine, is an important part of a 
vacuum cleaner. This is constructed so that it fits the sur- 



VACUUM CLEANERS 149 

face from which the dirt is to be drawn, insuring the drawing 
up of dust as well as air. 

The dirt is drawn from only a few square inches of surface 
at one time. The thoroness and rapidity with which the dirt 
is removed depends upon the strength of the suction or the 
power of the machine. Thus, hand machines may have to be 
moved over a surface several times if it is very dirty in order 
to get all the dirt. 

Plain solid nozzles work best on carpets and other surfaces 
of similar kind. They are not effective on hard floors, but 
this is not essential, as dirt can easily be removed from smooth 
surfaces with a brush. 

188. Cautions in Using Vacuum Cleaners. The diffi- 
culties to be met with in vacuum cleaners are leaks. First of 
all, the machine must be fitted together perfectly; if not, the 
dust drawn into the machine escapes into the air of the room 
instead of into the collection pan or chamber. 

Machines are made air-tight, but to be cleaned, they must 
be taken apart. In putting them together, the housekeeper 
must take pains to fit them together perfectly. 

Never neglect to empty the dust chamber. Keep the ma- 
chine properly oiled. A punctured bellows or a leaky dust 
strainer will cause dust to escape after being drawn into the 
machine. These have to be remedied with new parts. Some 
machines leak because of improper manipulation, such as a 
too-fast or too-jerky motion in operating them. The direc- 
tions for each machine tell how to use it — such directions 
cannot be given here because they differ so much. 

When the pan has become over-full of dirt, the machine will 
necessarily throw out dust as well as air. Letting the machine 



150 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



^m 






get over-full of dust may ruin the machine by making some 
part leak continuously. 

189. Difference Between Hand and Power Cleaners. 

Power machines differ from hand ones in that they are run by 
motor power (Figs. 99 and 99-ct). They may have larger 

collecting chambers and may be 
stationary in the cellar and con- 
nected to the rooms by long 
pipes (Fig. 100). They must 
likewise not be over-full of dust. 
They must be kept properly 
adjusted. As the operation of 
the mechanism shakes the ma- 
chine, it may loosen screws and 
nuts, so they must be kept 
tightened. The motor must 
also be kept in order. The mo- 
tors used for vacuum cleaners 
are the same as those used on 
other power devices. They may 
be small electric motors, forming a part of the machine, or 
large motors which operate several machines. 

In any case, they must be given the same care as any other 
motor of the same type. (See Chapter XXXVIII.) If they 
become overheated, they will not work well. They must be 
kept lubricated to avoid friction, and they must be kept 
properly adjusted. Fig. 100-a shows a number of different 
attachments for vacuum cleaners. 

190. Carpet Sweeper. A carpet sweeper is a combina- 
tion of brush and dust pan. The advantage of this device is 




Fig. 99. Electric vacuum 
cleaner. 



VACUUM CLEANERS 



151 





Screw Clamp for attzchfng 
Shoeto Noizlc. 



Artachment Shoe 



Handle l^ocLing Spnog-. 



'Oil Hole for Lubrication 
of Top Motor Bearing.' 




Oil Hole for Lubricatii 
of Lower Motor Bearing. 



Handle Locking 
D< 



Handle 
Ucking Sc 



Steel Bar Spring 
for Opcranng Switch 



Fibre Connector Plug. 

Du^t Proo! i^^bber Ca 

BagConnector. ^^,j,^, 

fC Rubber Belt foi 

Automatic Driving Brush 
Dust Check- 



Universal Motor in DoreCt 



Nozzle Adjusting Caster. Driving Sleeve 




' 'T^^ " 

gjgjj \ Rei.oKmg Bristle Brush, f Hollow Steel Brush STialL^ 



Bearing. 



-Cleaning Nozzle 



Fig. 99-a. Electric vacuum cleaner, showing parts. 



152 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



that the dust is gathered into the machine as the brush 
rotates, due to the action of the wheels on which the machine 
moves. The dust is collected into pans at each side of the 
brush; these are covered so that the dust does not fly into the 
air as much as otherwise would be the case (Fig. 101). 
Oil the sweeper regularly about once a month by putting 




Fig. 100. Stationary vacuum 
cleaner. 





Fig. 100-a. Nozzles for 
vacuum cleaner. 



one drop of oil on the ball 

.bearing on the hub of each 

wheel. Failure to oil carpet 

sweepers causes them to wear 

out quickly, to squeak, and to run hard. . More oil than is 

needed only gathers dust and gums the sweeper. 

Empty the sweeper (Fig. 102) each time it is used, even 
during the sweeping if necessary. Don't fill it to overflowing. 



OIL CYCO BALLBEARIN6S MERC 

Fig. 101. Section of carpet 
sweeper. 



VACUUM CLEANERS 



153 



Always open the pans by pressing on the dump levers, not by 
taking hold of the pans. Don't let the brush get tangled with 
hair, ravelings, etc. Take it out occasionally and clean it 
(Figs. 103 and 103-a). Cut along between the spiral rows of 



USE THE .A <■ 

DUMP LEVERSi 
TO EMPTY f^-\,ih) 





Fig. 102. Emptying sweeper. 



Fig. 103. Releasing brush in 
sweeper. 



bristles with a sharp knife or shears, and the ravelings and 
hairs can be picked or combed out easily without injuring the 
brush (Fig.' 104). Never try to pull them off whole. Also 





Fig. 103-a. Details of construc- 
tion of carpet sweeper. 



.\v{\. mui^WiZi^'" CUT 

"^'"1 -^'" j;^4.-^" RAVELINGS 

BEFORE PULLING OFF 

Fig. 104. Cut ravelings 
from brush. 



remove any accumulation of dirt or ravelings which catch in 
the wheels or bearings. Don't let dirt collect in any part of 
the machine. Keep it clean. Good sweepers work best with- 
out extreme pressure on the handle. Never put oil, water or 
any liquid on the bristles. Don't keep a sweeper on a warm- 
air register — it takes the life out of the bristles. 



154 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



191. Mop Wringers. There are two kinds of mop wring- 
ers to attach to pails. One is made of two flat surfaces which, 
when pressed together with the mop between (Fig. 105), 
squeeze the water out of it, and the other is made of two 





Fig. 105. Mop wringer. 



Fig. 106. Another type of 
mop wringer. 



wringer rollers which, when brought together by a lever after 
the mop is put between them, rotate as the mop is pulled up- 
ward and wiing out the water (Fig. 106). 



Questions for Part VII 

1. How do vacuum cleaners pick up dust? 

2. Describe some type of vacuum cleaner. 

3. What care should be given a vacuum cleaner? 

4. Tell how to clean a carpet sweeper. 



PART VIII 

Devices for Preparation and Con- 
servation OF Food 

chapter xxvii 

Pots, Pans, and Other Devices 

192. Materials from Which Utensils Are Made. Since 
there is considerable choice in utensils made from different 
materials, the housekeeper may like to know something about 
these materials and about their care, and the effect of acids 
and alkalis upon them. 

Russia iron is one of the older materials for pots and pans, 
and it still holds a place in cookery, for it makes bread, loaf 
cake and cooky pans, which give to the food a thin, brown 
crust, due, imdoubtedly, to the way in which it conducts 
heat. (See tables on page 158.) 

Tinned metal, which is well tempered, also, gives a thin, 
brown crust to layer cakes and pies. It makes good bread, 
loaf cake and cooky pans. Most of the cheap tin of today is 
iron-coated with very little tin. It does good work, but 
utensils made of it cannot be kept as well polished and as at- 
tractive in appearance as more heavily-tinned ones. 

Sheet iron, heavy steel and cast iron make the most pop- 
ular frying pans. The heavy iron, holding heat as it does, 
makes a desirable brown coating on most foods without the 
danger of burning experienced with frying pans of other 



156 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

materials. This is due to specific heat and conductivity of 
the metal. Sheet-iron frying pans are useful in cooking foods 
which are wanted on short notice. The small-sized ones are 
most in use. 

193. Aluminum Alloy. Satisfactory frying pans are 
made from aluminum alloyed with other metal and cast. 
Real aluminum frying pans warp. They do not brown the 
food as well as materials that conduct heat less rapidly. 

194. Cast-iron Utensils. Heavy cast iron finds special 
favor in the making of pot roasts, bread sticks and popovers. 
It browns the roast and makes a thick crust on bread sticks 
and popovers. 

All iron or tin utensils give better service as they become 
tempered with use. They must be kept dry in order to pre- 
vent rust. Do not use them for cooking acid foods. 

Granite, cast aluminum and Russia iron are the popular 
and satisfactory materials for roasting pans. 

195. Earthenware. For casseroles and bean pots, earth- 
enware is a favorite material, tho heavy glass gives equally 
good results. These materials are fitted for long, slow baking 
of food. They hold heat and conduct it to the food in such a 
way as to produce results which are difficult to duplicate with 
utensils of other materials. 

196. Aluminum and Graniteware. Stew pans are 
proving satisfactory when made of aluminum and of high- 
grade graniteware. An assortment of pans and double boil- 
ers containing utensils of each material gives the best results, 
as the granite is most desirable for cooking some acid and very 
salty food, while aluminum is light and satisfactory for pre- 



POTS, PANS, AND OTHER DEVICES 157 

paring other dishes. Never let food stand in aluminum or 
granite dishes after being cooked. High-grade granite ware 
is not as readily affected by acids as the low, cheap grade. 
Enameled ware, which is roughened by a dilute solution of 
vinegar, is likely to contain substances injurious to health. 
Ink will not stain good enameled ware. Graniteware, like 
glass and earthenware, makes a heavy crust on the dishes 
being baked in them. Graniteware is metal, coated with a 
sort of glass. It must be treated like glass. It cracks when 
dropped. Never set it on a hot stove when empty or cold, as 
the heat of the stove will crack it as it will glass. "When hot, 
do not set it on a cold marble or a metal table top, as sudden 
changes in temperature will crack it. With proper care, 
granite and enameled ware give good service. 

Graniteware is proving desirable for making utensils for 
use on electric stoves, the conductivity of the glass coat- 
ing being so low, that it conducts the heat to the top of the 
pan slowly so the food in it gets to cooking quicker than in 
utensils made of most of the other materials. 

Aluminum is easily dented and warped by extreme heat. 
It is attacked by some strong acids and strong solutions of 
salt, soda and fruit juices. Aluminum may be hardened by 
the addition of six to seven per cent of copper so that it can be 
cast into utensils. Great care must be used not to use clean- 
ing powders which contain strong alkalis for cleaning alumi- 
num ware. It has light weight, and, when polished, is very 
attractive. With proper handling, it gives good service. 

197. Mixing Spoons. The wooden mixing spoon gives 
best results, as it does not mar the utensils, and the handle 
does not become as hot as metal. Hard maple or orange 



158 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



wood cut in a plain design makes the best spoon. Acids do 
not attack it. Plated silver or solid nickel spoons come next 
in usefulness. Softer metals wear off too fast to be satisfac- 
tory. 

Nickel is a most desirable material for household utensils, 
but is very expensive. It is not in common use in this coun- 
try. 

TABLE SHOWING CONDUCTIVITY AND SPECIFIC HEAT 

OF METALS 



1 



Metal 


Conductivity 


Specific Heat 


Silver 


1.00 


0.0559 


Copper ^ . 


.74 


.0923 


Aluminum 


.48 


.2022 


Tin 


.15 


.0509 


Iron 


.12 


.1098 


Glass 


.0017 




Silicon , 


.159 at 10° C. 






.2029 at 232° C. 


Nickel 




.1084 


Tungsten 




.035 









CHAPTER XXVIII 
Parers, Seeders, Grinders, Slicers, Etc. 

198. Fruit and Vegetable Parers with Knives. Parers 
of the type with a knife have a fork-like device on which the 
fruit or vegetable is held while a knife blade, attached to a 
shaft governed by a spring, is pressed against the fruit or vege- 
table so that it cuts off a thin layer of the surface. Both the 
fruit and the knife are caused to ro- 
tate so that the whole surface of the — tL l/A^ 
sphere-like object will be covered by 
the blade of the knife during one or 
more revolutions of the wheel which 
operates them (Fig. 107). The knife 
is guarded so that it cuts only a thin 
layer from the outer surface of the 
fruit or vegetable. After the knife 
has made the complete journey over ^^^- ^^'^- Pa^'^''- 
the surface, a device attached to the machine pushes the ob- 
ject from the fork so that a new one may be put in its place. 
Parers are quite complicated devices, but they have been per- 
fected so that they are not clumsy, and some can core apples, 
stone peaches and slice the fruit. 

Keep this type of machine dry so that it will not rust. Do 
not put it into water. Wipe off the blade of the knife and the 
fork when thru paring, so that the acid of the fruit will not 
discolor them and dull the knife. Keep the other parts dry 
and oiled. In time the spring governing the knife becomes 




160 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



weak and the machine will not do good work. This spring 
can be replaced on some machines. Parers are usually made 
of cheap material so that a new machine costs less than 
the repairs. 

199. Parers Which Grate Off Skins. Another type of 
parer is a grater-like device. This is used in larger establish- 
ments than the ordinary , 
home, but is useful where 
there is much canning 
of hard fruits or vegetables 
to be done at home. It 



consists of a container, 




Fig. 108. Cherry stoner. 



Fig. 109. Grinder. 



the inside of which is rough like a grater. The vegetables 
or apples are put into the container with water enough to 
float and separate them, and the whole is agitated so that 
the vegetables coming against the sides have the outer 
surface removed or grated off. The water acts as the 
medium for moving the vegetables and for removing the bits 
of skin from the sides of the parer. 

Keep this parer clean by scrubbing the inside with a stiff 
brush and rinsing well with water after using. Keep in a dry 
place. 



* PARERS, SEEDERS, GRINDERS, SLICERS 



161 



200. Seeders and Stoners. Seeders and stoners are 
constructed to punch out the seeds which are contained in 
cherries, grapes, raisins, etc. 




Fig. 110. Parts of Corona grinder. 

201. Cherry Stoner. A simple cherry stoner (Fig. 108) 
consists of a small platform with a rod slightly smaller in 
diameter than a cherry stone. The cherry is put on an in- 
clined plane so that it rolls over the hole. The cherry usually 
stays on the rod until this rod is lifted; then it passes between 
two guards which pushes the cherry off on another incline, 
where it rolls into a pan (Fig. 108). 



162 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



There are several makes of stoners, but most of them 
work on this principle, whether the rod is lifted by hand or 
moved by a crank. 



'^ 




Fig. 111. Parts of Universal grinder. 



202. Grinders. Grinders are of two principal types — 
the roller and the burr. Coffee and other hand mills are of 
the burr type (Figs. 109 and 110). The food passing between 
these rough surfaces is ground to a fine powder as one is 
turned on the other. 

203. Choppers or Meat Grinders. Choppers or meat 
grinders, as they are sometimes called, consist of a spiral 



PARERS, SEEDERS, GRINDERS, SLICERS 



163 




channel, thru which the food is pushed along. Knives are 
placed in the sides of some machines to chop the food as it 
passes, while in others the knives are only at the outlet. 
Keep the fingers out of the hopper 
when the chopper is being operated. 
Keep the machine clean and dry 
when not in use (Fig. 111). 

204. Choppers. Choppers have 
been made which really chop the 
food without crushing it, but these 
machines are so clumsy and noisy, ^i^- H^. Vegetable slicer. 
that they have not come into common household use. They 
consist of chopping knives which are raised and lowered 

by levers and a crank. 

205. Slicers. Slicers vary in 
design. The following illustrations 
(Figs. 112 and 113) show two dif- 
ferent types. Care must be taken 
to guard the fingers when using 
slicers. Wash the knives and keep 
them dry when not in use. A 
soiled knife gets dull faster than a 
clean, dry one. 

206. Lard and Fruit Presses; 
Sausage Stuffers. Presses and 
stuffers are of two types — the one 
which depends on the weight 

exerted on a long lever, and the other which depends on a 
screw to press the substances. The screw forces a flat board 
or surface down upon the food as it is turned. More pressure 




Fig. 113. Universal vege 
table slicer. 



164 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



for the size of the device can be secured with the screw 
than is practical with a weight on the long arm of a lever 




Fig. 114. Lard and fruit press. 



(Fig. 114). The stuff er is like a press, except that the food 
is forced out one hole. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
Mixers, Beaters and Churns; Coffee Pots 

207. Use of Mixers, Beaters and Churns. Mixers, 
beaters and churns are all devices for agitating or stirring 
food. 

The simpler ones of these devices depend upon the motion 
of the hand (Fig. 115), while others have their velocity in- 
creased by means of cog 
wheels. 

The turning of the large 
wheel turns the small wheel 
as many times as number 
of cogs on the small wheel 
is contained in the number 
on the large wheel (see Fig. 
116). To get even more 
speed or to apply the 
power at a different angle, a series of wheels are sometimes 
used. A few mixers, like the bread mixer, are simply ma- 
chines which take the hands out of the food, thus tending 
to a higher degree of sanitation, and a change in the 
motion which may not be so tiring as kneading. They do 
not increase the speed of mixing. 

Bread made in a mixer has a somewhat different texture 
than bread kneaded by hand, but this does not change its nu- 
tritive value. 

208. Care of These Devices. The principal care needed 
by these devices is that they be kept clean and the cog wheels 




Fig. 115. Parts of bread mixer. 



166 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



dry. Very little oil should be used, as it would tend to get it 
into the food. Sometimes the rivet holding a wheel needs to 
be tightened, as, for example, when one becomes so loose that 
the wheel slips cogs. If it is too tight, the wheel may bind 
and work hard. 

209. Freezers. The freezer is a mixer in a can which is 

in turn set in a freezing mix- 
ture of ice and salt. 

Freezing can be done with- 
out stirring the cream. This 
makes a cream filled with 
crystals, while if stirred, it 
will be smooth and velvety 
because it freezes more even- 
ly. The rapidity of freezing 
and the proportion of the 
ice and salt affect the fine- 
ness of the grain of the frozen 
dish. 

A freezer is designed not 
only to stir the food, but to 
scrape it from the sides of the 
can. That which freezes first must be stirred into the middle 
of the can; otherwise, it would form a hard frozen layer of 
cream on the sides, leaving the middle unfrozen, and interfere 
with the turning of the paddle or beater. 

In the bottom of the outside bucket, holding the ice and 
salt, is a socket into which the pivot on the bottom of the can 
fits. The can turns on this pivot in the direction opposite 
to which the paddle is turning. Some freezers are made so 




Fig, 116. View showing internal 
arrangement of cake mixer. 



MIXERS, BEATERS AND CHURNS; COFFEE POTS 167 

that the can stays stationary. The function of the pivot is 
then to hold the can in the center of the pail so that the paddle 
will be in the proper position to turn easily. 

210. Care of Freezers. The pail of wood should not be 
stored in a very dry place when not in use. The can and pad- 
dle must be kept clean and dry so that they will not rust. 
The bearings and wheels which turn the paddle and can must 
be kept dry and oiled. 

There is a hole in the upper part of the tub or pail in which 
the can sets, and this should be kept open as it is placed 
slightly below the level of the top of the can so as to drain off 
any water from the melting ice which otherwise might get 
into the can and make the food salty. 

Some freezers have another hole at the bottom of the tub. 
This should be kept closed while food is being frozen. It is 
useful to drain off the water from the tub when the freezer is 
to be repacked or emptied. It should not be opened at any 
other time. 

211. Churns. Churning can be done with almost any 
device which agitates the cream, but the churns which are 
simplest are most easily cleaned and least wasteful of butter. 
They are barrels or other containers which revolve or swing 
backward and forward. 

Keep churns clean and well aired so they will not give up 
odors and flavors to the butter. After a churn has been used, 
rinse it with cold water and then wash it in hot water, to 
which washing soda has been added. Lastly, rinse with 
scalding water. Leave open to air when not in use, but pro- 
tect from dust and dirt. 

212. Drip Coffee Pots. Drip coffee is made in a funnel 



168 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



or a cup-shaped device which is suspended in a coffee pot (Fig. 
117). This is made either of cloth or perforated metal. The 
coffee is pulverized and packed into the funnel. Cold water 
is poured on top of the coffee and slowly filters thru it, ex- 
tracting flavoring substances. The water is 
heated after it has filtered thru the coffee. 
213. Percolator CofiEee Pots. A cof- 
fee percolator is a device put in a coffee 
pot to hold the ground coffee above the 
water and pump some of the water to the 
Fig. 117. Drip fun- top of the pot so that it can seep back 
down thru the ground coffee (Fig. 118). 
A perforated cup with a perforated cover holds the coffee. 
Thru the center of this cup passes a small tube to the top of 





Fig. 118. Percolator. 

the pot. At the bottom Of the tube is a flat plate with turned- 
down edges or other device which supports the pipe and rests 
on the. bottom of the pot. A small amount of water gets un- 
der this and into the pipe. The heat in the stove turns the 



MIXERS, BEATERS AND CHURNS; COFFEE POTS 169 

water next the bottom to steam, and this steam, in escaping, 
forces the water in the pipe to the top of the pot, and raises 
the device slightly so that more water flows under it and into 
the pipe, and again steam is formed and more water forced to 
the top of the pot. (See Sec. 161, Suction Washers.) After 
being forced out of the top of the pipe, the water falls in a 
spray on the cover of the cup and seeps down thru the coffee 
back into the main part of the coffee pot. The pumping de- 
vices in percolators may differ somewhat in design, but the 
working principle is the same — that steam is lighter than 
water and can be generated in amounts which will force water 
up thru the central tube. 

Coffee grounds must not be allowed to get into the small 
tube, for they will hinder the flow of the water. , The holes in 
the cup and cover must be kept open. There is less waste in 
using finely-ground coffee than the coarsely-ground in perco- 
lators. A small tube brush is needed for cleaning percolators. 
The coffee must not be ground so fine that it will sift thru the 
perforations in the cup. 



CHAPTER XXX 

Dish- Washers, Canners and Dryers 

Tho dish-washers (Fig. 119) have found a place in hotels, 
and large establishments, they are still in the experimental 
stage for general household use. 

Small machines on the market, patterned after the hotel 






Fig. 119. Dish-washer. 

type, are giving good results for home use. When using these 
machines, place the dishes in them in the manner directed and 
use as much water as is called for. 

Some dish washers work on the plan of revolving the dishes 
in the water, some in forcing the water over the dishes, and 
others by agitation of both dishes and water. 



DISH-WASHERS, CANNERS AND DRYERS 



171 




Fig. 119-a. Small dish-washer 
for household use. 



Keep the pan washed clean. Keep all bearings properly 
oiled. Have the machine dry when not in use. There is 
least breakage in the washers which hold the dishes station- 
ary (Figs. 119, -a, -b and -c). 

One type of dish-washer has 
no motor; the force of the run- 
ning water washes the dishes. 
This can only be used where 
the water supply is abundant 
and imder considerable pres- 
sure. The washers equipped 
with paddles for throwing the 
water over the dishes use about a dishpanful of water for 
washing the dishes, and as much more for scalding and rinsing 

them. When well scalded in the 
dish-washer, the dishes will dry if 
the cover to the washer is left open. 

214. Dish Dryer. There is 
a number of dish dryers on the 
market which hold the dishes sep- 
arate from each other. Into these 
dryers, boiling hot water is poured, 
over the dishes. There is provi- 
sion for the water being drained 
away immediately, and the heat 
it imparts to the dishes dries them. 
(Fig. 119-c.) 

215. Cleaning Silver. Silver can be cleaned in an alu- 
minum pan filled with water and soda. There are silver 
cleaners which are merely aluminum pans with which come 




Fig. 119-&. Walker dish- 
washer. 



172 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

directions for proportioning the soda and the water. A mix- 
ture of salt and baking soda is sometimes used, combined with 
a piece of zinc in an aluminum pan. The salt, soda, zinc and 




Fig. 119-c. Tray for holding dishes. 

silver are put into the aluminum pan and set on the stove. 
The action of the salt and soda on the metals produces an 
electrolytic action which brightens the silver. 

Do not use this method of cleaning on gray or colored silver. 

216. Canners. Canners are devices for sterihzing fruit 
and other food which is being canned. The wash-boiler type 



Fig. 120. Water bath canner. 

consists of a boiler or kettle with a rack in the bottom to raise 
the jars an inch or so from its bottom to prevent the cracking 



DISH-WASHERS, CANNERS AND DRYERS 



173 




Fig. 120-a. Small 
canning outfit. 



of the jars. It has a cover to keep the heat uniform. The 
water in the canner must entirely cover the jar. This is 
usually called a water bath, as the jars must be completely 
submerged in the water (Figs. 120 and 120-a). 

217. Water Seal. Water-seal canners are like the water- 
bath canners, except that the cover has a flange on it, the 
depth of the boiler, and about two inches from the sides of it. 
This makes a jacket of water between 
the flange and sides of the canner. This 
causes the temperature inside to rise 
about two degrees above the ordinary 
temperature of boiling water. Food can 
be sterilized in a little shorter time in 
this canner than in the ordinary water 
bath. It is as important that the water entirely cover the 
jar in this canner as in the water bath. 

218. Pressure Canners. Pressure canners are made 

very strong and have covers which fit 
tight, making it possible to raise the 
temperature in them considerably 
above the boiling temperature of 
water, so the food may be sterilized 
in a very short time. 

The pressure canner has either a 
rack or a perforated pail on the in- 
side to raise the jars from the bottom 
as in other canners. It is also fitted 
with a steam gage which registers 
the pounds of pressure in the canner. 




Fig. 121. Pressure can 
ner showing pet cock. 



Five to fifteen pounds pressure is 



174 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

used for canning. The amount of pressure needed and the 
time of sterilizing depends on the organism present. A 
higher pressure is an indication of a higher temperature in 
the canner. After the jars are filled and put in the canner, 
the cover is fastened down tight by thumb-screws. There is a 
pet cock which is kept open when the canner is first heating, 
to let the air be forced out by the first steam which forms. As 
soon as the steam begins to escape, the pet cock is closed and 
the temperature inside of the canner begins to rise above the 
temperature of boiling water (Fig. 121). 

On the canner is a safety valve which is set so that the in- 
stant a certain number of pounds of pressure is reached, it is 
lifted up by the steam. Some of the steam then escapes, thus 
preventing the pressure in the canner becoming so great that 
there is danger of its exploding. 

219. Use of the Canner. Water is put into the canner 
to reach to the bottom of the rack. The jars are filled accord- 
ing to canning directions and are set in the canner. When 
the jars are in, the cover is adjusted to the canner and screwed 
on tight so that no steam will escape between the cover and 
the canner. The pet cock is left open until steam begins to 
escape thru it as the canner is heating on the stove. When 
steam begins to come, the pet cock should be closed, and the 
steam-gage hand then begins to turn, indicating that the 
pressure in the canner is rising. 

When the steam gage reaches the point desired, the safety 
valve is adjusted so that the steam will escape should the 
pressure continue to rise. Until the operator knows where to 
set the weight to the safety valve, leave it well out to the end 
of the rod until the pressure in the canner has reached the de- 



DISH-WASHERS, CANNERS AND DRYERS 



175 



sired point. Then move the weight to the point on the arm 
of the valve which will just keep in the steam. 

Be sure the cover is properly adjusted. Be sure to exhaust 
the air from the canner before closing the pet cock. Keep the 
fire so that the desired pressure will be maintained without 
the escape of steam 
from the safety valve. 
When steam escapes 
from the canner thru 
the pet cock at a 
rapid rate, it may 
cause liquid to flow 
out of the jars. 

Be certain to let 
the canner cool until 
the indicator on the 
steam gage has 
reached zero before 
opening the canner. 
When the indicator 
points to zero, open 
the pet cock. If a heavy stream of steam starts to escape 
from it, close it again and wait a few minutes longer. Test 
again by opening the pet cock; if a very little stream of steam 
escapes, leave the pet cock open and wait until steam has 
stopped escaping from it. Now loosen the screws holding 
the cover in place. Partially loosen each screw. When this 
is done, fully loosen all and lift off the cover. These precau- 
tions are taken to prevent the operator from being burned 
by steam or getting hurt by the cover being lifted by the 

12 




Fig. 122. Device for sealing tin can. 



176 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



steam. It also prevents the breaking of glass jars due to 
sudden pressure changes. 

Never let the canner cool so long before the pet cock is 
opened that air will rush into it, due to the vacuum which is 
sure to form when the steam is cooled if the pet cock is not 
opened. Such a condition may break the jars. 

Tin cans are sealed with a de- 
vice (Fig. 122) which folds the 
edge of the cover over the top of 
the can so tightly it will not leak. 

220. Dryers. Dryers are de- 
vices to hold the food being dried 
in a thin layer so that the air can 
be circulated thru it freely. Some- 
times they are devised to direct 
If the air is heated, 




Fig. 123. Dryer. 



currents of air thru the drying material 
the drying is hastened (Fig. 123). 

A sieve on which food is spread hung above the stove is a 
simple drying device and one of the most practical for home 
use. The heat currents rising from the stove pass thru this 
and dry the food. 

Many dryers are constructed on this same principle, having 
a heating unit below and trays of food above. These trays 
have to be shifted from time to time, as the moisture from the 
lower ones rises with the heat to the upper trays, thus retard- 
ing their drying. The top trays, if too numerous, are useless 
on this account. Two or three seem to be all that can be used 
with advantage at one time in home dryers, tho some machines 
are made with many more. 



DISH-WASHERS, CANNERS AND DRYERS 177 

Another type of dryer has a fan device in it which forces the 
air thru at a faster rate than would be accomplished by heat 
alone. Such air should pass thru a strainer. Ordinary air, 
even when drawn from a clean rqom, carries much dust with 
it, and if the dust is not strained out previously, it is strained 
out by the food. This injures the quality of the product. 
Large commercial dryers provide such a strainer. 

221. Care of Dryers. Dryers should be kept clean. 
They should not be heated enough to cook the food. Set 
them in a dry, airy place. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
Separators and Emulsifiers 

222. Cream Separators. A cream separator is a device 
for separating cream from milk. Separation can be done best 
while the milk is still warm (Fig. 124). 

Separators should be set in a bright, dry, airy place free 
from dust and dirt. Near the separator should be a conven- 
ient place for airing and sunning the tin parts which come in 
contact with the milk. 

The base for the separator should be solid enough so that it 
will not shake while the machine is being operated. If set on 
a wooden floor, see that the boards are nailed in place, and if 
the floor is thin, put heavy strips to cover several boards 
across it. Fasten the strips firmly to the floor and set the 
separator on them. When the machine is set up, be sure 
that it is set level. 

223. Different Types of Separators. There are two 
types of separators — one which contains discs of metal (Fig. 
125), and the other which depends upon a cylinder in which 
the milk rotates (Fig. 124) for the separation of the cream 
from the skim milk. Fig. 126 shows a sectional -view of the 
DeLaval separator. 

Cream is lighter than milk, and when milk and cream are 
whirled rapidly, the milk, being heavier, flies to the outside of 
the container, and the cream stays near the center. Two 
pails whirled rapidly made the first separator ever used, but 
that was clumsy and impractical. 



SEPARATORS AND EMULSIFIERS 



179 



Modern separators consist of a pan which holds the milk, 
and which lets it flow in a stream into the portion of the ma- 
chine which is being whirled rapidly by the turning of the 




Fig. 124. Cream separator. 



wheel at the side. There is a place in the rotating part which 
lets the cream flow from the center into one container, and 
the milk flow from the outside to another. 



180 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



The parts of the machine must be fitted together properly; 
otherwise, it will fail to do good work. 

Always turn the wheel at the speed indicated for the ma- 
chine with discs. If there is no speed indicated, turn as fast 
as needed for good separation of milk and cream. Take care 
not to drop and dent any of the tin parts. Adjust for the 
density desired for the cream. 

224. Washing the Machine. As soon as milk has been 

skimmed with the separa- 
tor, pour some water into 
the bowl and run it thru 
the separator the same as 
the milk. 

Wash the bowl and other 
parts in hot water in which 
washing soda has been dis- 
solved. Rinse in clear wa- 
ter, and then scald with 
boiling water. Once a 
week give it a more thoro 
washing, scrubbing all 
parts with a brush. Sun 
the parts when not in 
use. 
The mechanical parts which whirl the 
In oiling, follow the direc- 
Use a good grade 




Fig. 125. Discs in DeLaval cream 
separator. 



225. Oiling. 

separator should be kept oiled. 

tions which come with the machine. 

of oil. 

226. Whey Separator. A whey separator is a machine 
very much similar to a milk and cream separator. It is 



SEPARATORS AND EMULSIFIERS 



181 



used in homes where much cheese is manufactured. It 
should be given the same care as other separators. 

An homogenizer is a device used to give whole milk a con- 
sistency which is much like cream. 




: SiFLr DCAT, cccs: 



Fig. 126. Sectional view of separator. 

227. Emulsifier. The emulsifier is a device for com- 
bining dried whole milk with water, or dried skim milk with 
water and butter fat so that they make a reconstructed milk 
of almost the same composition as new milk. An emulsifier 



182 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

is of interest to the woman who lives in the city. Emulsifiers 
are used in large institutions. Some have been installed in 
settlement houses and public schools. They might be owned 
by communities where people might use a large amount of 
dried milk. In the emulsifier, the milk, water and sweet but- 
ter are warmed. After this, they pass thru a device looking 
much like a separator, but which mixes the ingredients to- 
gether instead of separating them. From the mixer the milk 
passes over a cooling device, and is ready for use. This ma- 
chine should be kept clean, and the parts which come in con- 
tact with the milk scalded out with hot water after being 
rinsed with cold water. 

Questions for Part VIII 

1. What metals would you select for a pan to use when a thin crust 
is wanted? What materials produce thick crusts? 

2. For what purposes would you choose aluminum? Granite? Cast 
iron? Glass? Earthenware? On what basis would you make a choice 
of utensils? Why wouldn't glass make a good ice-cream freezer? 

3. What are the essentials of good parers, slicers and corers? 

4. What kind of dish washers are proving the most helpful? 

5. Describe a silver-cleaning device. Does the use of such devices 
harm the silverware? 

6. What is a water-bath canner ? How would you make one? 

7. What may cause glass jars in pressure cookers to break? 

8. How may the breakage be prevented ? 

9. Explain the ways in which cream may be separated from milk. 
10. How do separators help ? 



PART IX 
Sundry Devices 

CHAPTER XXXII 
Dumbwaiters and Other House Furnishings 

228. Dumbwaiters and Window Adjustments. Dumb- 
waiters and elevators are used in homes where the kitchen is 
on a different floor from the dining-room. 

The simplest ones are a set of shelves counterbalanced by- 
weights. When the elevator is raised, the 
weights drop down, and when it is lowered, 
the weights rise. 

Window weights hung over a pulley in the 
top of the window sash work on the same 
principle as dumbwaiters — the weights help 
in raising the window. The only care need- -p^^ I27r^pring 

ed is to replace the rope when worn. pulley for win- 

dows. 
Another window pulley is made of metal 

like that in a clock spring (Fig. 127) . The spring is drawn out 

when the window is lowered, and the weight of the window 

is just enough to hold it, so very little force is needed to raise 

the window, as the spring is pulling on it, too. 

229. Check Valves. Check valves are made to prevent 
doors from slamming. They are used in offices and public 
buildings, and, occasionally, in homes (Fig. 128). One kind 
contains glycerine and castor oil, which move from one com- 




184 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



partment to another as the door is opened and slowly flow 
back as a spring pulls the door shut. 

The other kind is operated by compressed air and a spring. 
The air causes the steady action of the door stop. 
Another type of pneumatic hinge is attached to a door 

which is hung so that it would 
naturally swing shut. When 
the door is opened, the air is 
exhausted from part of the 
hinge. After it has been 
opened, the slow equalization 
of the air inside the door stop 
and outside allows the door to 
close slowly without slam- 
ming. 

230. Door Fastener. A 
door fastener (Fig. 129) is a 
small device which has a 
strong spring on the inside. When the spring 
is released, it pushes down on a rod which is 
capped with rubber. When down, this comes 
in contact with the floor and holds the door in 
place. To change the position of the door, a 
small lever is used to lift the rod and compress 
the spring, thus releasing the door stop from 
contact with the floor. 

231. Window Shades. Window shades Fig. 129. Door 
are equipped with a spring in one end of the 
roller to aid in raising it. At the end of the spring is a flat 
bar which is held in position by the bracket on which the 




Fig. 128. Check valve. 




DUMBWAITERS; OTHER HOUSE FURNISHINGS 185 



shade is hung. Small catches hold the curtain when it is at 
the desired position (Fig. 130). If the spring becomes weak, 
draw the curtain down. This compresses the spring. Stop 
so that the clamps always fall into place to hold it. Then 
remove the curtain from the brackets and roll it up by hand. 




Fig. 130. Spring in curtain roller. 

Place it back on the brackets. It can then be raised or 
lowered as wanted, and will work with more power. Take 
care when doing this not to wind the spring so tight that 
it will draw the curtain clear around the 
roller, thus letting the spring unwind or 
breaking the spring. 

232. Hinges. There are some hinges 
which should be of interest to women. 
These are the ones for doors which swing 
only one way, and for those which swing 
both out and in (Fig. 131). 

233. Sliding Doors. When sHding doors slip off the 
slide, they may be replaced. They are hung like a barn door. 
There is a metal track above the door between the walls. 
The door is hung on this track "by pulleys which slide along the 
track. Sometimes, by accident, these pulleys are slipped 
from the track. The door then must be lifted so that the pul- 
ley can be set back on the track. Usually the door needs to be 
lifted but a fraction of an inch and then pushed a little to one 
side or the other to get the pulley into place. 




Fig. 131. Hinge. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
Sewing Machines 

234. Different Types of Sewing Machines. There are 
two types of sewing machines in use — the chain-stitch and the 

lock-stitch. Sewing 
machines are made 
to run by hand, foot 
or mechanical motor 
power. This makes 
no difference in de- 
sign or care of the 
stitching part of the 
machine. Motor and 
foot power run the 
machine faster than 




Fig. 132. Lock-stitch machine. 



1. Bed Slide 17. Face Plate Tionrl -nnwor 

2. Presser Foot 18. Pressure Regulating naUQ pOWei 

3. Presser Foot Thumb Thumb Screw 
Screw 19. Presser Bar 

4. Needle Clamp 20. Thread Take-up Lever 

5. Needle Clamp Thumb 21. Thread Guide 
Screw 22. Arm 

6. Needle Bar Thread 23. Spool Pin 
Guide 24. Bobbin Winder Stop 

Latch 



7. Needle Bar Bushing 

8. Thread Cutter 

9. Face Plate Thumb 
Screw 

10. Slack Thread Regula 
tor 

11. Tension Spring 

12. Tension Regulating 
Thumb Nut 

13. Tension Discs 

14. Thread Take-up 
Spring 

15. Thread Guide 

16. Presser Bar Lifter 

34, 



The treadle of the 
foot-power machines 
swings on pivots. 
These should be kept 
oiled and clean from 
lint and thread. The 



25. Belt Cover 

26. Bobbin Winder Thread 
Guide 

27. Balance Wheel 

28. Bobbin Winder Pulley 

29. Bobbin Winder 

30. ^Bobbin Winder. Worm large and the small 

Wheel 

31. stitch Regulating whecls for the belt 



Thumb Screw 

32. Bed 

33. Throat Plate 
Feed Plate 



should be oiled at 
the axle. 

235. Lock-Stitch Sewing Machine. A lock-stitch 
sewing machine (Figs, 132 and 133) consists of shafts and 



SEWING MACHINES 



187 




wheels which move the needle, feed plate and bobbin. The 

top thread is guided from spool to needle thru a tension so 

that only the needed amount passes forward each time the 

needle is raised after the 

thread has caught in the cloth. 

When there is a difference 

in the size of the thread used 

on the machine, the tension ^ 

must be adjusted to fit the 

thread, unless the tension is Fig. 133. Under part of machine 

using a vibrating shuttle, 
automatic. If the tension is 

not properly adjusted or the machine threaded properly, the 

thread will either break, tangle at the needle point, or draw 

the top thread tighter than the bottom one (Fig. 134). 

A longer stitch is needed for coarse thread than for fine 
thread. 

236. Feed Plate. A device below the needle called the 
feed plate (No. 34, Fig. 132) shoves the cloth faster or slower 
under the needle, according to its adjustment, thus mak- 
ing a longer or shorter stitch. This 
device is a rough plate which moves 
backward each time the needle is 
raised, and forward again when the 
needle comes down. While moving 
backward, the rough surface moves 
the cloth, but it drops slightly below 
the level of the table as it moves back into place, so does 
not affect the cloth. For short stitches, it moves with a 
short stroke, and for long stitches, with a long stroke. If the 
feed plate becomes gummed with lint and oil, the machine 




Fig. 134. Diagramsshow- 
ing proper tension. 



188 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 




will not make even stitches and may fail to move the cloth. 
Sometimes it will fail to stitch. Improper threading may break 
the needle thread. Too tight a tension may break it. Too 

coarse thread for the size of the needle 
may break the needle. A bent, blunt 
pointed or incorrectly set needle may 
break. 

237. Bobbins. There are two styles 
of bobbins used on lock-stitch sewing 
machines — the shuttle bobbin (Fig. 135) 
and the round bobbin (Fig. 136), depending on the particular 
type of machine used. 

238. Shuttle Bobbins. In shuttle bobbins, there is a 
long iron spool on which the thread is wound. This is put into 

the bobbin with the twist in 
the direction indicated in the 
book of directions for the 



Fig. 135. Shuttle bob 
bin. 





Fig. 137. 
thread. 



Pulling up bobbin 



Fig. 136. Spool bobbin. 

machine being used, and the thread is drawn thru the slits 
and holes in the bobbin which govern the tension of the 
lower thread (see Fig. 135). 

Put the shuttle into place and draw the thread up over the 
feed plate (Fig. 137). The machine moves the shuttle back- 



SEWING MACHINES 189 

ward and forward, and as this happens, the needle is timed to 
drop down, leaving a loop of thread in such a position that the 
bobbin passes thru it. In rising, the needle pulls the loop up 
tight, and as it has passed thru the cloth, this cloth comes in 
between the thread from the bobbin on the under side and the 
thread from the spool on the upper side, which have been in- 
terlocked by the bobbin having passed thru the loop of thread 
from the spool as the needle carried it down below the cloth. 
This is called the lock-stitch (Fig. 134). The spool bobbins 
also pass thru the loop left after the needle has passed down- 
ward. 

239. Chain-Stitch Machine. In the chain-stitch ma- 
chine (Fig. 138), the shaft turns a device which draws a loop of 
thread thru each foregoing loop, thus making a stitch similar 
to crocheting, but having the cloth interlocked with the stitch. 
The needle carries the thread and makes it tight or loose as 
needed. The feed plate carries the cloth under the needle. 

There is a tension to govern the thread. As a single thread 
is used in making this stitch, no bobbin is used. The tension 
must be tight enough to draw the loop of thread about the 
cloth, or else the thread will tangle. 

240. Cautions for All Machines. Machines should be 
kept well oiled, and they must be kept free from thread and 
lint, for these are the things which give trouble in machines. 
Never try to draw the cloth under the needle any faster than 
it is pushed along by the feed plate under the presser foot. 
Pulling on the cloth bends the needle from the exact path 
which it should follow. 

Move the treadle with a smooth, even motion — a jerky mo- 
tion wears out operator and machine. Use only the best sew- 



190 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



ing-machine oil. Poor oil gums the parts of the machine. 

Clean the machine every day it is in use. Take care to set 

the needle in its proper position, and fasten it firmly in place. 

241. General Instructions. Thread the machine ex- 




FlG. 138. Chain-stitch machine. 



1. 


Cloth Plate 


10. 


Embroidery Spring 


19. 


Small Wheel 


2. 


Presser Foot 


11. 


Pull Off 


20. 


Belt 


3. 


Needle-Bar Nut 


12. 


Spool-Pin 


21. 


Shaft 


4. 


Needle Bar 


13. 


Spool-Pin Holder 


22. 


Frame 


5. 


Needle-Bar Screw 


14. 


Automatic Tension 


23. 


Stitch Regulator 


6. 


Foot Bar 


15. 


Tension Rod 


24. 


Cap 


7. 


Lever 


16. 


Ball Stud 


25. 


Looper 


8. 


Liftee 


17. 


Lever Stud 


26. 


Link 


9. 


Take Up 


18. 


Connecting Rod 
28. Feed Surface 


27. 


Feed Bar 



actly according to instructions. If not properly threaded, it 
will fail to stitch — the thread will tangle. If the bobbin is 
not properly threaded, it will not have the proper tension, and 
the machine cannot sew as it should. The bobbin thread will 
break if it is not properly threaded thru the bobbin case. It 
will also break if the bobbin tension is too tight (No. 14, Fig. 
138). 



SEWING MACHINES 191 

Always regulate the stitch, and the size of needle for each 
size and kind of thread used. A table for this usually comes 
with each machine, or is often stamped on the machine. Se- 
lect the thread suitable to the material. The number of a 
needle is marked on the shank. Needles made for one kind 
of machine will not always work on another. 

An automatic tension should not be changed or meddled 
with. Some tensions must be adjusted to the thread. Follow 
directions coming with the machine for adjusting tensions. 
Remove any thread which has become entangled in the mech- 
anism of the machine. 

Never use a bent needle. A bent needle drops stitches on a 
chain-stitch machine. Soaping the needle helps it to go thru 
goods difficult to penetrate. 

When a machine runs hard, it needs oil or has become gum- 
med up with poor oil. When gummed, clean with kerosene 
oil. Thread or ravelings wound about the axles of the wheels 
also makes the machine run hard. Learn to use the attach- 
ments of your machine — ^take care that they do not become 
bent. 

The lock-stitch does not rip easily. 

The ends of the thread of chain stitches should be carefully 
fastened. If started from the end where the seam was com- 
pleted, the loop stitch may be easily unraveled and thus save 
time when mistakes are made in sewing or when garments are 
being made over. 



13 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

Automobiles 

No lengthy treatise on automobiles can be given here, but a 
few facts of general information are well in order. 

Each car has its special features, but the basic principles of 
operation and control are the same for all makes. Let us con- 
sider, first, the control of the machine on the road. 

242. Starting the Motor. Open the throttle from one- 
fourth to one-third way, to permit entry of plenty of gas into 
the motor. Set the time control about as far down as the 
throttle. Turn on the ignition switch and turn the motor 
with the starter. 

A cold motor may demand use of the choker before start- 
ing, but, again, too free use of the choker floods the carburetor 
with a rich, non-explosive mixture which can be removed only 
by use of the starter. Should the motor flood too easily, or 
should it take too much choking, have the carburetor read- 
justed. Common mistakes in starting the motor are (1) too 
free use of the starter, which is injurious to the battery; (2) 
starting with the timer set too far down, causing back-fire. 
Occasionally, a novice attempts to start a car with the gears 
set and the brakes on. With the motor started and running 
smoothly, shift the gears into low and take off the brake. Let 
the clutch back gently to prevent the car from starting with a 
jerk. In shifting gears, the throttle should be kept down to 
prevent the motor from racing upon releasing the clutch. (3) 
A common mistake is the attempt to shift gears with the 



AUTOMOBILES 193 

clutch not entirely released. (4) Still another error is the fail- 
ure to release the brake on starting, resulting in everything 
from a stalled motor to a stripped gear. 

A difficult place to start a car is when stalled on a hill. This 
is done by holding the machine with the foot brake, throttling 
the motor with the hand lever, and slowly releasing brake and 
engaging clutch simultaneously. 

243. Driving the Automobile. In driving, many things 
should be observed. The oil pressure gauge or indicator 
should be noted from time to time to see that the motor bear- 
ings are getting proper lubrication. The speed of the motor 
should be such that the battery is being charged rather than 
discharged, as is likewise shown by an indicator on the dash. 
This is especially important when using lights at night. Keep 
timer lever in correct place to prevent overheating. 

The general rule for driving is — keep to the right side of the 
road, the only possible exception being when passing a ve- 
hicle going in the same direction; then go around on the left. 

Stop before crossing railroad tracks, and drive slowly when 
approaching cross roads. In turning corners to the left, make 
the turn beyond the center of the cross road. Do not use 
brakes against the motor — release the clutch. Do not use 
the brake too forcibly; it will cause injury to rear tires and 
skidding. On slippery roads, make it a rule to use chains 
and drive slowly. 

244. Care of Car. Under this heading, a few general 
rules may be given. Do not persist in running a machine 
when out of order. Never drive when the lubrication system 
is working imperfectly. Lack of cylinder oil will ruin a motor 
in a short time. Make it a rule to look at oil gauge before 



194 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

starting. Care of the battery consists largely in keeping it 
charged and filled to the proper level with distilled water. 
Tires should be kept inflated at all times. In case of trouble, 
never run on a flat tire, as it will soon be worthless under such 
treatment. Never drive a machine while out of order — stop 
and have repairs or adjustments made. 



CHAPTER XXXV 

Lawn Mowers; Incubators 

245. Operation and Care of Lawn Mowers. The wheels 
of the lawn mower permit it both to move easily over the 
ground and turn the knives which cut the grass (Fig. 139). 

This means that they must be kept well oiled to work 




Fig. 139. Lawn mower. 

easily — that the shaft of the wheel must not become wrapped 
with grass, weeds, string or wire. Most machines are made 
adjustable, and the knives are set to allow them to pass close 
enough to the plate at the bottom of the mower to clip the 
grass as if the machine were a pair of scissors. Keep the 
knives properly adjusted in relation to this plate. Do not let 
them come so close that they touch the plate but very lightly, 
nor be so uneven that one end cuts grass, while the other 
misses the plate so far that it will not cut. 

If the knives are kept properly adjusted and the mower is 
not abused by trying to cut wires, stones, or by being stored 
where it becomes rusty, it will seldom need sharpening. 

Keep all bolts tight. 



196 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

246. Storing Mowers. When storing for the winter, 
grease the knives with a heavy coat of unsalted lard, or cover 
them with some other protective material. 

247. Scissors and Shears. In popular language, there 
is no distinction made between scissors and shears. Technic- 
ally defined, scissors are less than six inches in length. Any 
similar cutting device of greater length is called shears. Both 
are devices used for cutting cloth, paper, pruning trees, and 
many other purposes. They consist of two knives riveted to- 
gether at some point between the handle and the point of the 
blade. The two blades are so adjusted that as the open scis- 
sors are closed, they touch lightly as they pass each other un- 
til the tip is reached. When the scissors are closed, the blades 
should touch only at rivet and tip. Scissors not so adjusted 
will not cut well, even tho the blades are very sharp. Drop- 
ping scissors often bends the blades. Blades may be straight- 
ened as well as sharpened, and thus make good metal scissors 
like new. 

248. Principles Upon Which Incubator Works. A 
device for hatching chickens is called an incubator. In order 
to hatch chickens, the incubator must keep an average tem- 
perature of 102^- degrees Fahrenheit. The thermometer 
should be placed in the center of the tray and on a level with 
the top of the eggs. The temperature of 102^ degrees Fah- 
renheit must not vary greatly during the incubation of eggs. 

The incubator must also permit of suitable ventilation and 
control of the moisture in the eggs. 

There are incubators heated with hot water and others with 
hot air. The air or water in those commonly used in homes 
is heated with a kerosene lamp. 



LAWN MOWERS; INCUBATORS 197 

The device consists of a heating unit, a regulator or thermo- 
stat which, acting upon a valve or damper, regulates the ad- 
mission of heat into the insulated box containing the trays of 
eggs, ventilators and a thermometer (Fig. 140). 

249. The Body of the Incubator. The box-like body 




Fig. 140. Incubator. 

of a good incubator is set on strong legs which raise it to a 
convenient height. The trays slide into the box on cleats 
about two or three inches from the bottom of the body. They 
fit so that a slit about two inches wide is left between for the 
chickens to drop down under the tray as they hatch. Usually 
this is near the door. If the door is furnished with a glass to 
admit light, the chickens are attracted toward light and fall 
thru the slit. 

The walls of the incubator are usually double so that air can 
be let in without making a draft. Dampers in the side of the 



198 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



\^ 




machine regulate the admission of air. Ventilation both reg- 
ulates the amount of air circulating in the incubator and the 
amount of moisture. Air from a damp room keeps the eggs 
moist. Air from a dry room dries them. 

250. Incubators Heated by a Lamp. Choose a lamp 
which holds enough oil to last for twenty-four hours. Good 

lamps are usually made of metal and as plain 
as possible (Fig. 141). 

The burner furnished with them is an ordi- 
nary lamp burner carrying a straight, flat 
wick. Metal chimneys are used, there being 
enough mica in one side to permit the flame to 
be seen. The chimney extends into a metal 
chamber containing the hot-water pipes, or 
Fig. 141. Incu- into a chamber thru which air is taken and 
bator lamp. ^^^^^^ ^y. ^^e chimney. The fumes from the 

burning oil pass out into the room and not into the incu- 
bator. The heated air passes thru ducts into the incubator. 
These are often constructed of wood. 

251. The Wick. The wick most generally found prac- 
tical is the cotton wick, such as is used in ordinary lamps. It 
should be kept clean and renewed often. The lamp should be 
kept filled regularly. The wick must always be kept trimmed 
even, to prevent smoking. 

Incubators heated by electricity have the heating unit 
placed either above or below the trays of eggs. The current 
is controlled by a thermostat. 

252. Thermostat. The thermostat also raises the dam- 
per over the top of the lamp and air heater (Fig. 142), when 
the incubator reaches the temperature for which it is set, and 




LAWN MOWERS; INCUBATORS 199 

lowers it when the temperature falls. When the damper is 
lifted, the heated air passes out into the room and not into the 
incubator. As soon as the incubator cools below this tem- 
perature, the thermostat contracts, letting the damper drop 
in place to retain the heat and direct it into the incubator. 
The thermostat works the same when a gas flame is used in- 
stead of a lamp. In electrical ma- 
chines, the thermostat operates the 
switch, admitting much, little or no 

current, as is needed to maintain Fig. 142. Thermostat 

for incubator. 

102| degrees Fahrenheit. 

253. The Thermometer. A thermometer is placed in 
the incubator to guide the operator in regulating the tempera- 
ture. It guides him in adjusting the thermostat and the 
heating device; that is, it shows him when to turn the wick of 
the lamp up or down. 

Lamps should never be turned high enough to smoke. 
Smoke and gas in the room are likely to get into the incubator 
and harm the growing chicks. 

254. Operation of Incubator. Set the incubator level; 
it is constructed to work on the level. Heated air rises — if the 
incubator is not level, the highest point will get most of the 
heat. It should be set in a dry room or dry cellar, which is 
well ventilated and well lighted. There should be no artifi- 
cial heat in the room which is not regular. An uneven tem- 
perature gives difficulty in managing the heating of the incu- 
bator. The room should be free from dust. 

Adjust the incubator and run it for two or three days to see 
that it is operating at a constant temperature before putting 
in the eggs. 



200 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

Use only the best grade of oil, and use the same kind of oil 
all thru one hatch. Change in oil may necessitate a 
change in regulators which is not safe while the eggs are in the 
incubators. 

Start the incubator with a good, clear, high flame in the 
lamp, so that it can be turned lower as the germs in the eggs 
begin to grow and generate heat. 

Start the incubator at 100 degrees Fahrenheit, and by the 
second day, it will reach the temperature of 102 degrees. 

Violent fluctuations of temperature in the 

incubator are dangerous and should be avoided. 

Accuracy in reading temperatures and in 

adjusting the thermostat and ventilators is 

essential. Fill the lamp and turn the eggs 

regularly. Cleanliness is important. Disinfect 

the incubator between hatches, and air it well. 

Fig. 143. Egg Cresol soap and water make a good disinfect- 

ant for incubators. Turn and handle eggs 

with clean hands. 

To know whether the incubator has the proper amount of 
moisture supplied, weigh the trays before filling, weigh after 
filling. At the end of the fifth day, weigh tray and eggs 
again, subtract the tray weight, which is constant, from the 
weight of the whole, and note the difference between this 
weight and the original weight of the eggs. If 100 eggs have 
lost 8.38 ounces, or 4.17 per cent of their weight, the moisture 
is correct. 

If they have lost too much weight, give more moisture or 
less ventilation, but, remember, that pure air is essential to 
incubators, so do not shut off ventilation entirely. 




.\ 



LAWN MOWERS; INCUBATORS 



201 



If not enough weight is lost, open the ventilators, and, if 
necessary, for the next hatch, place the incubator in a drier 
place. 

255. Egg Tester. An egg tester is a device for looking 
thru eggs to ascertain whether or 
not they are good. It consists of 
some device to keep all bright light 
away from the eyes except a few 
bright rays shining thru the egg. 
The hole should be about an inch 
long and three-fourths of an inch 
wide. A metal chimney with one 
such opening in the side used in a 
darkened room serves as an egg 
tester. A large piece of cardboard 
tacked over a sunny basement 
window is sometimes used, the hole 
being cut in the cardboard (Fig. 143). 

Hold the egg between the finger 
and thumb before the opening. Look at the egg as the 
Hght shines thru it. Fig. 144 shows how good and bad eggs 
look when viewed in egg tester. 




Fig. 144. Appearance of 
eggs when put in egg 
tester. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

Typewriters 

256. Construction of Typewriter. The typewriter is a 
machine for printing letters (Fig. 145). The letters making 
the imprint are attached to shafts which can each swing to one 
point. Care should be taken to strike one key at a time, as 




Fig. 145. Typewriter, L. C. Smith. 

they are all made to reach the same point, and contact with 
each other may cause bent shafts. If a shaft becomes bent, 
the letter attached to it will not swing to the desired point, so 
will be out of alignment, or will fail to leave a mark, since the 
imprint is made on a roller and the letter hits only the nearest 
part of the surface. The shaft may have one, two or three 
letters on it. This is made possible by the use of the shift key 



L\ 



TYPEWRITERS 203 

which raises or lowers the framework to which the roller is at- 
tached, so that when the machine is in normal position, one 
set of type on the keys will be imprinted, and, upon the hold- 
ing down of a shift key and simultaneously striking a letter, 
another set of type will make the imprint. ~ On some type- 
writers there are two shift keys, allowing three sets of charac- 
ters to be used. The motion of the keys turns a small wheel 
which shoves the roller from right to left, and, also, turns the 
spools of ribbons so that a new bit of ribbon comes under the 
letter each time a key is struck. If the ribbon did not move, 
the letters would soon cut a hole thru it. This ribbon carries 
the ink which reproduces the imprint of the letter. When the 
end of a ribbon is reached, most machines reverse its direction 
so that it again winds onto the spool from which it has just 
unwound. On other machines, it is necessary to release the 
bar which controls the spools to reverse the winding of the 
ribbon. 

257. Special Features of Typewriter. Learn how to 
use the attachments on the typewriter to get the greatest 
service from it. If a machine is equipped with tabulating 
keys, much time is saved by using them for the indentations 
instead of working the space bar until the desired place is 
reached, or by using both hands to release the carriage and 
move it to its desired place. Some machines are equipped 
with a key marked "ribbon" key. This key, when pressed, 
lowers the ribbon so that no impression from it is made on the 
paper. When the ribbon is removed, stencils may be cut 
with the letters for mimeographic work. These are only 
two examples. There are many automatic aids on each 
make of machine. 



204 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



258. Interchangeable-Type Typewriters. On these 
machines, the type is not placed at the end of a shaft, but the 
complete set of letters is put on a semi-circular plate which is 
attached to a wheel which brings the desired letter to the 
point wanted when the key is pressed (Fig. 146). 




Fig. 146. Hammond interchangeable typewriter. 

The change of type can be made very easily so that with 
the proper semi-circular plate any one of several languages 
may be written on this kind of typewriter regardless of the 
characters used to represent the letters. 

Charts of the keyboard are furnished with each set of let- 
ters to guide the operator in writing. This machine requires 
the same general care as other typewriters. 



TYPEWRITERS 205 

259. Care of Typewriters. 

1) Read the directions for cleaning and oiling the machine. 
Keep them for future reference. 

2) Do not attempt to take the machine apart. Only re- 
adjust parts for which such directions are given. 

3) Use only the best grade of typewriter oil, and oil only 
where indicated. The average machine does not require oil- 
ing oftener than from ten to fourteen days. 

4) Brush the entire machine each day before using. This 
prevents the accumulation of oil and dust, which retards the 
free action of the machine, and rusts or clogs the bearings and 
other parts. 

5) Use a stiff brush to clean the type. If the type has be- 
come gummed with ink from lack of care, moisten the brush 
with alcohol or gasoline, and brush it until clean. Avoid 
cleaning the type with a sharp instrument, if possible, as it 
mars the edges. However, in case of the letters having an 
enclosed parts, such as o, d, e, b, g, p, a, s, c, q, it may require 
the careful removal of the deposit with a pin. After this 
treatment, the type should be well brushed. Keep machine 
covered when not in use. With proper care, a machine 
should stay in good order indefinitely. If, in any way, any 
part of a machine is out of adjustment, have an expert read- 
just it. 

260. The Hectograph. The hectograph is one of the 
simplest devices for obtaining duplicate copies of written 
work (Fig. 147). It is a sheet like heavy paper or pad of 
jelly-like substance on which a reversed copy of the writing 
can be made and from which copies can be taken. The original 
copy is written with hectograph ink on smooth paper by hand. 



206 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

or on a typewriter, and allowed to dry. This copy is placed 
face downward on the hectograph pad, which has been moist- 
ened and rubbed to insure the contact at all places. It is al- 
lowed to remain here for three or four minutes. More time is 
required in cold weather, as the absorption of ink by the pad 
is slower. The paper is then removed, leaving a reversed im- 
pression on the hectograph plate. Copies are then made by 
placing dry paper on the impression and removing them in- 
stantly. Twenty copies may be taken. The plate should be 
washed in lukewarm water immediately after use. The hec- 
tograph plate should be about the temperature of an ordinary 
room; chilled plates produce faint prints. Never use cold 

water on the plate. Keep pen 
flowing freely when writing the 
original copy, by wiping it fre- 
FiG. 147. Hectograph. q^ently. Keep the hectograph 

covered when not in use. 

261. Mimeograph and Multigraph. The mimeograph 
(Fig. 148) is a more complicated device for reproducing dupli- 
cates than the hectograph, but more copies may be made at 
faster speed on this machine and the stencils may be saved 
for making more copies later. A stencil (tissue paper, usually 
blue, fastened to a sheet of equal size waxed cardboard) is cut 
by a typewriter. This is done by removing the ribbon and 
allowing only the outline of the type to cut thru the tissue 
which has been saturated with "Dermax," a liquid wax which 
is brushed over the surface of the waxed paper, and the tissue 
paper carefully smoothed out upon it. Some stencil paper or 
waxed sheets do not require this treatment of "Dermax"; in- 
stead a tissue or silk sheet is placed under the stencil pa- 




TYPEWRITERS 



207 



per. When the desired wording is cut, the cardboard is torn 
off at the perforated line, leaving the four holes which attach 
the stencil to the roller of the mimeograph machine. First 
see that the pad on the machine is well inked, and then fasten 
the stencil to the pins at the top of the roller and with bar at 
the bottom, seeing that it is smooth. 




Fig. 148. Mimeograph. 

Set the adjustment which indicates the number of copies 
turned out, so that it is not necessary to count them while 
printing. (Full directions are printed on this adjustment.) 
Place the paper on the feed board, far enough down for the 
sheets to come in contact with the rollers which feed them in, 
and turn the handle. If the proportion of space at top is 
greater or less than desired, set the attachment for regulating 
the space. Full directions are printed on each attachment of 
most machines. See that the ink tank which is located inside 

14 



208 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

the cylinder is kept full of the best ink. Ink the pad by push- 
ing the brush across the inside of the perforated cylinder. 

Multigraphs differ from mimeographs in that they print the 
copy from tjrpe instead of thru a stencil. The type is set in a 
cylinder that is covered by an inked ribbon. Manuscripts 
printed by a multigraph look more like typewriting than those 
printed by a mimeograph. When turning out less than a 
thousand copies, the mimeograph will be found more econom- 
ical on account of the small amount of time required in pre- 
paring the stencil. 

Questions for Part IX 

1. By what means are dumbwaiters operated? 

2. Can you see any relation between the construction of door stops 
and force pumps? 

3. What is the power for rolling up a window shade? 

4. What does lock-stitch look like? How does chain-stitch differ 
from lock-stitch? 

5. In what way do lock-stitch machines differ from chain-stitch 
machines? 

6. What are the advantages of each ? What are the disadvantages ? 

7. What is the tension? How is it adjusted? How is the length of 
stitch adjusted? 

9. In what ways is an automobile engine like the gasoline engine and 
the electric motor used in rural homes for operating household ma- 
chinery ? 

10. What is the shape of the knives on a lawn mower that makes it 
cut the same as a pair of scissors? 

1 1 . What may be the reasons for scissors not cutting as they should ? 

12. What are the essential features of a good incubator? 

13. What is a thermostat? How does it work? Are thermostats of 
any use to the housewife on any other device than the incubator? 

14. What mechanical factors are embodied in a typewriter? Find 
the pulley, the levers, the springs, etc. 

15. What are the differences in a hectograph, a mimeograph and 
multigraph? 



PARTX 
Motors, Fuels, and Gas Plants 

CHAPTER XXXVII 
Treadles and Water Motors 

262. Definition of Motor. A motor is a device for 
utilizing the power stored in gasoline, electricity or elevated 
water for doing work. The structure of the motor depends 
upon the source of its power, as does its name. Besides the 




Fig. 149. Water motor. 

motor, there is a treadle, or foot-power motor, used in the 
home. 

263. The Treadle. The treadle is a small -platform, 
which rocks on two pivots. As the treadle is rocked, it moves 
a rod attached to its outer edge, upward and downward. This 
rod is then attached to a wheel a short distance from the hub, 
so that the upward and downward motion of the shaft turns 
the wheel. When a belt is attached to the wheel, it will run 
a sewing machine or other small device. 

264. Water Motors. Water motors are commonly used 
in the household on washing machines and pumps (Figs. 149 



210 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



and 149-a.) At least twenty-five pounds of water pressure is 
required to run an average-size washer. More pressure is ad- 
vantageous. The motor may be, and often is, attached to 
tanks in which water is held under pressure, and used to 
pump water from a cistern or well. 

265. Selecting a Water Motor. Before purchasing any 




Fig. 149-a. "Reliable" water motor. 



device to be operated by a water motor, ascertain how much 
water pressure you have available. Under enough pressure, 
the water from a faucet will give power enough to a small- 
sized water motor to run a washing machine, sewing machine 
or small feed grinders. These motors are usually less than 
one-half horse power. 



TREADLES AND WATER MOTORS 



211 



266. Two Types of Water Motors. One type of water 
motor is made up of a piston and valves in a cylinder (Fig. 
150). The water pushes the piston to a certain point when a 




Fig. 150. Sectional view of water motor. 



valve opens and lets out the water. 
The piston then moves backward 
until it automatically opens another 
valve, letting in more water, which, 
in turn, pushes the piston forward 
and again to the point where the 
first valve opens. The motion of 
the piston must be strong enough 
to do the work. About twenty-five 
pounds of water pressure is required 
in moving the piston forward when 
attached to a machine which might 
be operated by hand by a woman. 

Another type of water motor consists of cups or fans on the 
rim of a wheel. As the water flows over the wheel, it pushes 
it around, thus giving it power to do work provided there is 
enough pressure behind the water (Fig. 150-a). 




Fig. 150-a. Water motor 
assembled and in parts. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 
Engines; Motors and Batteries; Fuels 

267. Gasoline Engines. A gasoline engine (Fig. 151) 
should be operated out of doors or in a well-ventilated room, 
except in cases where the exhaust pipe is carried thru the wall 
of the building to the outside. The fumes may cause illness, 
or even death, to any one staying in the room. 

A gasoline engine should be mounted on a substantial base 
of concrete or heavy timbers, or on a well-built truck, and 
should be put in good order before the woman or girl begins to 
use it. The engine must be level. If more than one device 
is attached to it, be sure to use the right pulleys on the engine 
and the machine to be operated. An engine is usually equip- 
ped with pulleys of two or more sizes. .The size of the wheel 
on the washing machine or vacuum cleaner must be of a size 
to make the desired number of revolutions per minute. 

268. Figuring Speed of Pulleys. For example, if the 
speed of the engine is 425 revolutions per minute and the 
diameter of the pulley on the engine is 12 inches, and the ma- 
chine is to be run at 150 revolutions per minute, have a pulley 
on the machine of a diameter which equals 425 times 12, or 
5,100 divided by 150, or 34 inches. 

It would be more convenient to have a smaller pulley on this 
machine. Since there is a smaller wheel on the engine which, 
we will say, is 6 inches in diameter, put the belt on the smaller 
wheel, and then a wheel only 17 inches in diameter will be 
needed on the machine. 



ENGINES; MOTORS AND BATTERIES; FUELS 213 



EXHAUST VALVE. 
5PRING WASHER 



EXHAUST VALVE LEVER 
VALVE ROD CONNECTOR 



IGNITOR TRIP ROLLER 
ICNITOR TRIP CLAMP 



SIGHT FEED 
LUBRICATOR 




Fig. 151. Sectional view of gasoline engine. 






214 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

269. Operating the Engine. One person should be re- 
sponsible for the care of an engine. Starting the engine is 
usually too heavy work for most women. Since a man usually 
starts a gas engine which the women are to use, it is more im- 
portant that they know how to stop the engine and to recog- 
nize when it is not running properly. A cold engine can be 
started easier if warmed with hot water. 

Running an engine which is out of order may damage it se- 
riously. Have some one show you how to operate your en- 
gine. Stop it when not running properly. 

270. Points in Caring for Engine. The following are 
points to keep in mind when operating an internal combus- 
tion engine: 

1) Black smoke issuing from the exhaust pipe means there 
is not enough air in proportion to fuel. 

2) "When an engine misses more explosions than it should, 
or backfires, the cause is likely to be too much air in the fuel. 

3) If the mixture of fuel and air is in the proper propor- 
tion, but there is too little of it, the engine will have no power. 

4) Premature ignition may be caused by deposition of car- 
bon or soot on the walls of the cylinder; the compression 
being too high for the fuel used ; overheating of the piston, or 
exhaust valve, or of some poorly-jacketed part. 

5) Using too much or a poor quality of lubricating oil, or a 
mixture too rich in fuel, causes deposition of carbon on the 
cylinder. 

6) The use of too much cylinder oil is indicated by a blue 
smoke issuing from the exhaust. 

7) Pre-ignition, or a bearing out of order, or the engine not 
being securely fastened to its foundation, causes pounding. 



ENGINES; MOTORS AND BATTERIES; FUELS 215 

8) Too much water in the oil used for fuel causes white 
smoke to issue from the exhaust pipe. This may be caused 
by a leaky jacket on gasoline engines. 

9) Stop the engine by shutting off the supply of fuel. Open 
the switch to the ignition system. Close the lubricators and 
oil cups, and turn off the jacket water. 

10) In cold weather, drain off the jacket water to prevent 
freezing. 

11) Always leave the engine clean and in order to start 
again. 

12) For safety, belts and wheels should be boxed in wher- 
ever possible. 

Fig. 151 should be studied closely for a better understand- 
ing of the engine. 

271. Generating Electricity for Homes. Water mo- 
tors, kerosene, gas and gasoline engines are the sources of 
power commonly used to generate electricity for private 
homes. A device for generating electricity is called a dyna- 
mo (Fig. 152). The electricity generated is either used di- 
rectly while the engine is running, or it is stored in storage 
batteries. From here it is conducted thru wires and used for 
lighting, heating and turning motors to do work. 

272. Batteries. Batteries are used mainly where a 
small amount of current is needed, as on oil or gasoline en- 
gines, to make the spark to ignite the gasoline or oil, and in 
lighting gas and acetylene lamps, and for some door bells. 

There are several kinds of batteries, as liquid, dry-cell and 
storage. 

273. Liquid Batteries. In liquid batteries, electric cur- 
rent is generated by means of direct chemical action between 



216 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



an acid and two other substances, one more easily attacked by 
the acid than the other (Fig. 153), such as zinc and copper. 
This forms a simple cell, one form of primary battery. When 
the chemicals and metals in a primary battery are exhausted, 
they can be replaced with new metal or solution. 
274. A Dry-Cell Battery. A dry-cell is another form of 




Fig. 152. Electric generator. 

battery. In these, the moisture of the acid substance is ab- 
sorbed by some material like plaster-of -Paris flour or blotting 
paper, so that it can act on the metals or carbon in the cell and 
still make a cell easily transportable. The absorbed moisture 
in dry cells slowly evaporates, and then they become worth- 
less. These batteries are usually thrown away after they 
have been used and have ceased to generate electricity. 

275. Storage Batteries. Storage batteries differ from 
primary batteries in that current must be supplied to them 



ENGINES; MOTORS AND BATTERIES; FUELS 217 

from some outside source, such as a dynamo. They can be 
recharged again after the current in them has been used 
(Fig. 154). 

The engines for private homes where a light plant is used 
are adjusted to charge batteries at the proper rate — ^but the 




=4= 



2L 



[t"i ^^^ 




Fig, 153. Primary battery. 



Fig. 154. Storage battery. 



owner should charge these batteries at regular intervals. 
They can be charged only by direct current. 

Never allow the storage battery to run down to a voltage 
lower than 1.15 per cell. This reading is taken from the volt- 
meter supplied with the plant. 

Storage batteries should be tested by a hydrometer for the 
specific gravity of the electrolyte or liquids in them. In- 
structions for this and for correcting the specific gravity ac- 
company the plant. Take care to preserve them. 

Dynamos for home use are almost automatic. Run the 
dynamo to renew the batteries when using electric irons or 
other devices calling for more current than the lighting fix- 
tures. Each plant is designed to carry a certain load of 
equipment. Exceeding this, damages the plant. 

Place electric motors and dynamos in a dry, cool, clean 
place. 



218 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

276. Some Uses for Electric Motors. Motors are now 
used on sewing machines, washing machines, dish washers, 
vacuum cleaners, wringers, fans, refrigerating systems, pumps, 
grinders, freezers, churns and separators. They are made 
either for direct or alternating current. When purchasing a 
motor, be sure to designate the type of current with which it is 
to be used. Select motors of the right size to operate the ma- 
chine. It costs more to operate a large motor on a small de- 
vice than a small motor. 

277. Definition Tables. A British thermal unit is the 
amount of heat required to warm one pound of water one de- 
gree Fahrenheit. 

The flash point of an oil is that temperature at which it will 
form an inflammable vapor. The accompanying table shows 
amount of heat generated from a number of sources. 

The total heat in a gallon of kerosene is greater than that in 
a gallon of gasoline because the kerosene is heavier than the 
gasoline. A gallon of gasoline will give on an average but 
about five-sixths as much total heat as a gallon of kerosene. 
This is approximately true, whether the heaviest grades of 
kerosene are compared with the heaviest grades of gasoline, or 
the lightest grade of kerosene is compared with the lightest 
grade of gasoline. 

Distillate is the refuse left from the distillation of petro- 
leum. 

The flash point of kerosene may be between 70 and 150 de- 
grees Fahrenheit, depending upon the grade. For illumin- 
ating purposes, do not use kerosene with the flash point lower 
than 120 degrees Fahrenheit. 

The flash point of gasoline is 10 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit; 



ENGINES; MOTORS AND BATTERIES; FUELS 



219 



that is, gasoline will form an imflammable vapor at tempera- 
tures as low as this. 

Between 60 and 70 per cent of the common fuels are utilized 
in the generation of steam for heating purposes. 



TABLE 


SHOWING GENERATION OF HEAT 




Amount 


Fuel 


B. T. U. 




lib. 




Anthracite coal 


13,200-13,900 




lib. 




Bituminous coal 


12,000-15,000 




lib. 




Lignite coal 


8,500-11,400 




lib. 




Wood 


8,200- 9,200 




1 cu. ft. 




Natural gas 


900- 1,000 




1 cu. ft. 




Illuminating gas 


500- 600 




lib. 




Kerosene 


18,000 




lib. 




Alcohol 


12,000 




lib. 




Gasoline 


19,000 




1 K.W.-hr. 




Electricity 


3,400 





*One pound ice in being melted will absorb 144 B. T. U 



CHAPTER XXXIX 
Gas Plants 

278. Gasoline- Gas Plants . Gasoline-gas plants are de- 
vices for generating gas from gasoline. The gas is a mixture 
of air and gasoline vapor. It is made by air being forced thru 
gasoline. There are small plants which can be installed in 







Fig. 155. Gasoline gas plant. 

private homes (Fig. 155). Gasoline vaporizes at ordinary- 
temperature. The vapor or gas produced can be used for 
heating, lighting and running gas engines. 

One gallon of gasoline, when entirely vaporized, produces 
about thirty-two cubic feet of gas. Its heating power de- 
pends upon the character of the gasoline utilized and the tem- 
perature at which it is kept during vaporization. 

The plant is a device for forcing air thru the gasoline to 
make it vaporize as fast as wanted. Combined with the ca- 
buretor is a storage tank for the gas. A weight, or water 
motor, furnishes the power most commonly used in forcing the 



GAS PLANTS 



221 



air thru the gasoline and forms a part of the plant. Air cannot 
flow thru the gasoline when the storage tank is full of gas so 
that the power is only in operation when the gas is being used 
or the tank is not quite full. 

279. Acetylene- Gas Plant. Acetylene is often used in 
rural homes when gas or electricity are not available. The 




Fig. 156. Acetylene gas plant. 

operation of the plant often has to be attended to by a mem- 
ber of the family. A capable woman can do this, but she must 
be careful and must thoroly understand the plant (Fig. 156). 
The materials used in making acetylene are calcium carbide 
and water. Calcium carbide (A, Fig. 156) is made from lime 



222 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

and coke fused together in an electrical furnace. It miist be 
kept stored in a dry place. 

The plants for making acetylene are inexpensive enough to 
be installed in individual homes of moderate means. Calcium 
carbide for making the gas can be transported without diffi- 
culty. 

There are two types of machines. In one the water drips 
on the carbide; in the other, the more common type, the car- 
bide is dropped into the water. As soon as the carbide 
touches the water, it gives off acetylene gas. The gas is 
caught in and fills a bell above the water. As it fills the bell, 
it raises it, and when the bell reaches a certain height, it trips 
a lever to the door which lets in the carbide and closes it. 
When the gas is used, the bell goes down and, passing the 
lever, opens the door to let in a small amount of carbide. 

Improvements have been made in the plants and in install- 
ing them until there is less danger from explosions than for- 
merly. Great care should be taken in operating them to 
avoid accidents. Since the gas is highly explosive, fire, 
lighted lamps and cigars must be kept away from the vicinity 
of all acetylene plants. Only one person should take the care 
of the plant, tho others should understand how. 

280. Directions for Operating Acetylene Plant. 

1) Charge by daylight — remove all residuum, and fill with 
fresh water before adding any carbide. 

2) Follow exact directions for the machine used in the order 
directed. 

281. Cautions to Be Observed in Using Acetylene Gas. 
1) Do not apply a light to any opening that is not equipped 

with a regular acetylene burner tip. 




GAS PLANTS 223 

2) See that any workman repairing a generator first re- 
moves carbide and drains all water out, and disconnects it 
from piping and removes it to the open air, where he then fills 
all compartments with water to force out gas before using 
soldering irons. 

3) An open light should never be permitted nearer than ten 
feet from the generator. The generator should never be 
nearer than fifteen to twenty feet from furnace or stove. Do 
not hunt for gas leaks with a flame or light. 

4) Do not use any artificial light except 
electric light when cleaning or repairing gener- 
ator, or carry a lighted pipe or other fire 
about it, even when empty. 

5) If water in any chamber should freeze, do 

Fig. 157. Pres- 
not attempt to thaw it with anything but hot sure tank for 

water. ^^^* 

6) Keep the motor oiled. Oil once in six months. 

282. Compressed Gases and Oils. Gases, such as Blau 
gas, Pintsch gas, and prestolite gas which is compressed ace- 
tylene gas, are compressed in strong tanks and sold for use in 
lighting and light housekeeping. Gasoline and alcohol also 
are occasionally stored in very strong tanks under enough 
pressure to make them flow thru very small pipes to the point 
where they are wanted for use. These are frequently used 
for lighting isolated public buildings, such as rural school- 
houses. 

As the gas or oil is used, the pressure diminishes. There is 
usually a pump' attached to the tank to pump in air in order 
to keep up the pressure. The pump is similar to a bicycle 
pump (Fig. 157). 

15 



224 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



Questions for Part X 

1. What is the difference between the treadle and a motor-power 
machine? 

2. How is power secured from water in a water motor? Or what is 
the source of power utilized by a water motor? 

3. How do you determine the size of pulleys to use on the gasoline 
engine and on the device it is to operate? 

4. What are some indications that a gasoline engine or automobile 
motor is not running properly? 

5. What are the kinds of batteries, and to what uses is each best 
suited? 

6. Do batteries need care? If so, what care? 

7. How is acetylene gas made? Describe the device for making it. 

8. How is gas for household use made from gasoline? 



PART XI 
Measuring Devices 

CHAPTER XL 
Scales for Weighing 

283. Equal- Arm Balances. Scales are devices for de- 
termining the weight of objects. Balances — one form of 
scales — are made of two arms of equal lengths and supplied 
with discs of metal of a known weight to be placed on one arm 
of the balance while the material to be weighed is put on the 
other. When the two arms are in equilibrium, the weight of 
the material is equal to the weight of the metal. Since the 
weight of the metal is known, or can be determined, by adding 
together the weights of the discs used, the weight of the mate- 
rial is known to be the same. 

284. Unequal- Arm Balances. Equal-arm balances are 
not convenient for weighing large objects. For this reason, 
scales are made with one arm of the balance much longer than 
the other. The metal discs are then marked with the weight 
of the material on the short arm which they can balance 
when placed on the long arm. This is the usual form of 
counter and household balances. On these scales is also a 
weight which slides along the arm and is used to determine 
weights smaller than five or ten pounds. The arm of the bal- 
ance is, therefore, marked at the point where this weight will 
balance certain amounts of material, such as half ounces, 
ounces and pounds. 



226 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



285. Spring Scales. Spring scales depend on the action 
of a spring, to which an indicating pointer is attached. When 
there is no weight on the spring, the place to which the indi- 
cator points is marked zero. When these scales are manu- 
factured, a pound weight is placed so that it pulls on the 
spring and the indicator is pulled down to another place, and 
this is marked one. Scales are thus marked for the number 
of pounds they are to weigh. The spaces between the pounds 
marked are divided into equal divisions, such as sixteenths 
which indicates ounces. These scales cannot be relied on for 
accuracy, for springs stretch or become weaker as they are 
used. Avoirdupois is the weight in common use for market- 
ing, while many tables for calculating dietaries are in the 
metric system. 

The housewife can have her balances corrected for weighing 
by the city or county sealer of weights and measures so that 
she can ascertain whether or not her food purchases are cor- 
rectly weighed. 



TABLE OF WEIGHTS 



Avoirdupois 
16 oz. — 1 pound 
100 lb. — 1 hundred-weight 
2000 lbs.— 1 ton 
0.035 oz. — 1 gram (Metric 
system) 

Apothecaries 
27-11/32 grams — 1 dram 
16 drams — 1 oz. 



Metric 
1 milligram— 1/1000 
1 centigram — 1/100 
1 decigram — 1/10 
Gram — 1 gram 
Dekagram — 10 grams 
Hectogram — 100 grams 
Kilogram — 1000 grams 



.001 gram 
,01 gram 
1 gram 



CHAPTER XLI 
Devices for Measuring Volume 

286. Graduate and Measuring Cup. Graduate hold- 
ing up to four fluid ounces is helpful to use to check up liquids 
bought in bottles. The standard measuring cup referred to 
in modern cook books holds half a pint of liquid. It also 
holds about sixteen level tablespoonfuls of dry material such 
as sugar. The divisions on glass cups are less likely to be ac- 
curate than on metal ones, as the bottom may be thick or thin 
unless carefully made. In selecting a cup, see that the bottom 
section is equal to the other sections. 

1 cup = 2 gills = 1/2 pint = 16 tablespoons = 

48 teaspoons = 8 fluid ounces. 
1 cup is also 1/4 of a quart and about 4/17 of a 

liter. 

287. Tablespoons. Tablespoons vary in size. The size 
chosen for measuring is the one in most common use and 
holds about three level teaspoonfuls of material like sugar or 
flour. 

1 tablespoon = 4 drams of liquid = 3 teaspoons. 
4 tablespoons = 1/4 cup = 2 fluid ounces. 

288. Teaspoons. Teaspoons vary in size, but the spoon 
. in common use is the one understood as the measure in cook- 
ery. It holds about one and one-third fluid drams. 

289. Standard Measuring Spoons. Standard meas- 
uring spoons in sets can be purchased at a very moderate 



228 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



price. They are particularly valuable for checking the capac- 
ity of the spoons more commonly used. 

290. Liquid and Cooking Measures. 

1 teaspoonful= 1-1/3 fluid drams 

3 teaspoonfuls= 1 tablespoonful= 4 drams 

2 tablespoonfuls= 1 fluid ounce 
1/2 cup=l gill 

2 gills=l cupful=8 fluid ounces 
16 tablespoonfuls= 1 cupful 
2 cupfuls= 1 pint 
2 pints=l quart=4 cupfuls 

4 quarts =1 gallon 
4.23 cupfuls= 1 liter 

1000 cubic centimeters=l liter 

1.06 liquid quarts= liter 

31-1/2 gallons= 1 barrel 

1 milliliter = one-thousandth (.001) liter 

1 centiliter= one-hundredth (.01) liter 

1 deciliter= one-tenth (.1) liter 

Liter = 1 liter 

1 dekaliter = ten (10) liters 

1 hectoliter=one hundred (100) liters 

1 kiloliter= 1 thousand (1000) liters 

291. Dry Measures. It is wise for a housewife to have a 
set of dry measures, consisting of a pint, quart, gallon, peck 
and half -bushel measure. A quart or gallon liquid measure 
is not equal to the dry one. It holds less. The diameter of 
dry measures should be as follows: 

DIAMETERS OF DRY MEASURES 



Measure 
1 pint 

1 quart 

2 quarts 
1/2 peck 
1 peck 

1 bushel 

*These diameters allow for proper heaping. 



*DlAMETER 

4 inches 
5-3/8 inches 
6-5/8 inches 
8-1/2 inches 
10-7/8 inches 
13-3/4 inches 



DEVICES FOR MEASURING VOLUME 229 

*DRY MEASURE 

2 pints = 1 quart 

8 quarts = 1 peck 
4 pecks = 1 bushel 

1 sack of flour =24-1/2, 49 or 98 pounds 
4 49-pound sacks of flour = 1 barrel 
1 barrel of flour= usually 196 pounds 
60 pounds of potatoes= usually 1 bushel 

*State laws diSer somewhat regarding the number of pounds in a bushel of various 
fruits and vegetables. 

292. Cubic, Square and Linear Measure. 

CUBIC MEASURE 

1728 cubic inches=l cubic foot 
27 cubic feet= 1 cubic yard 
128 cubic feet= 1 cord 

SQUARE MEASURE 

144 square inches = 1 square foot 

9 square feet= 1 square yard 
30-1/4 square yards= 1 square rod 
160 square rods= 1 acre 

640 acres= 1 square mile 

LINEAR MEASURE 

12 inches =1 foot 
3 feet=l yard 
5280feet=l mile- 
39.27 inches= 1 meter 

METRIC MEASURES 

Millimeter = one-thousandth (.001) meter 
Centimeter = one-hundredth (.01) meter 
Decimeter = one-tenth (.1) meter 
Unitemeter= 1 meter 
Dekameter=ten (10) meters 
Hectometer= one hundred (100) meters 
Kilometer= 1 thousand (1000) meters 



CHAPTER XLII 
Gas, Water, and Electric Meters 

293. Different Kinds of Meters. The housewife has 
need to be f amihar with three kinds of meters — water, gas and 
electric. These are devices for measuring water, gas or elec- 
tric current. 

294. Construction of a Gas Meter. The interior of 
one type of gas meter (Fig. 158) is somewhat like a water 




Fig. 158. Gas meter. 

wheel — the pressure of the gas pushes the wheel around. 
Every time a compartment full of gas passes a certain point, 
the gas flows out and the flange on the wheel trips a lever 
which moves the hand of the dial ahead, thus counting the 
emptying of the compartment. The gas in the compartment 
back of this then moves to this place. The emptied compart- 
ment is filled with more gas as it passes the inlet. 

295. Reading the Gas Meter. A gas meter is a device 
for measuring the number of cubic feet of gas which flows 
thru a pipe. Small dials with the numbers from one to ten 
and a hand for an indicator show the number of single feet, 
tens of feet, and thousands of feet, which have passed thru 



GAS, WATER, AND ELECTRIC METERS 



231 



the meter. The reading on any date is the total amount of 

gas which has passed thru. To tell how much has passed 

thru the meter during any period of time, take the reading of 

the meter on the first date, as indicated in Fig. 158, and then 

take the reading on the later date and subtract reading one 

from reading two — the resulting figure is the amount of gas 

passing thru the meter between 

these two dates. When buying 

gas, always keep the readings of 

meters at the time when the gas 

man takes them. Gas meters 

often register more or less gas 

than is actually consumed. Gas 

companies are allowed a variation 

or tolerance of one per cent fast 

or slow, to two per cent fast or 

slow. Gas is paid for at a stated 

rate per thousand feet in most 

places. 

296. Water Meters. The water meter (Fig. 159) is a de* 
vice for measuring the number of gallons or cubic feet of 
water which pass thru a pipe. The reading of the meter in- 
dicates the total amount of water which has passed thru the 
pipe since the meter was installed. Water is paid for, unless 
purchased at a flat rate, at so many cents a thousand gallons 
or thousand cubic feet. One cubic foot is called in commer- 
cial transactions 7-1/2 gallons. 

297. Prepayment Meters, Prepayment meters are de- 
vices which will permit a certain amount of gas or water, as 
the case may be, to pass thru a pipe, and after this amount is 




Fig. 159. Water meter. 



232 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 




Electric meter. 



used up, the pipe is automatically closed so that no more 
flows until more money is put into the meter. The weight of 
the coin works the valve. 

298. The Electric Meter. Electricity is usually pur- 
chased by the kilowatt hour, and measured by the watt-hour 

meter (Fig. 160). This 
measures the current pass- 
ing thru it, and the number 
of kilowatt-hours is shown 
by the indicators on the 

little dials. Start from left 

Fig. 160. Electric meter, j j j_i t_ 

and read the number on 

the dial, such as in the illustration, 3 hundreds 4 tens 9 units, 
making 349 kilowatt-hours; the total kilowatt-hours used 
since the meter was in- 
stalled. To find the num- 
ber used between two dates, 
take the reading of the 
meter on the first date and 
subtract it from the reading 

on the second date. The Fig. -leO-a. Electric meter showing 
T^ • .1 • . different readings. 

dinerence is the amount 

used during the period. Good business women keep records 
of the readings of their meters. Care must be taken to read 
the meter correctly. The hand next higher than the one 
below may read too high. The higher hand may, if out of 
alignment, pass the figure when the lower hand approaches 
the ninth point in its dial, this causing the person to read the 
figures one, ten, hundred or thousand units too much. 
(Fig. 160-a.) 




CHAPTER XLIII 
Thermometers and Thermostats 

299. Mercury Thermometers., There are two kinds 
of thermometers in use — the Fahrenheit and the Centigrade. 
Since the thermometer is used now in cooking, the housewife 
often has to meet the problem of translating temperatures 
from one to the other. 

The centigrade thermometer is marked on the assumption 
that the temperatures of boiling water and freezing water are 
constantly the same. The boiling point is marked 100, and 
the freezing point 0. The space in between is marked into 
even divisions and numbered 1 to 99. 

The Fahrenheit thermometer was made on the assumption 
that a mixture of ice and salt was the coldest temperature 
that could be reached, so this temperature of a certain propor- 
tion of ice and salt was marked zero. 

The hundred point was given to what was supposed to be 
the normal body temperature. The intervening spaces were 
marked into equal divisions, and these divisions were carried 
below degree and above 100 degrees. The boiling tempe- 
rature of water came at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, and the 
freezing point at 32 degrees. This makes 180 degrees differ- 
ence between thawing and freezing and boiling. So 100 de- 
grees Centigrade equal 180 degrees Fahrenheit. Therefore, 
1 degree Centigrade equals 9/5 degrees Fahrenheit, and 1 de- 
gree Fahrenheit equals 5/9 degree Centigrade. 



234 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



C. 



Tah. 



For example, if 40 degrees Centigrade is to be translated 
into Fahrenheit degrees, first multiply 40 by 9 = 360, then 
divide by 5 = 72, and add 32, because degree Centigrade is 
the same as 32 degrees Fahrenheit, and the result is 104 de- 
grees Fahrenheit equal 40 degrees Centigrade. If 41 degrees 
Fahrenheit is to be translated into Centi- 
grade degrees, first substract 32 from 41 = 
9, then multiply by 5 = 45, and divide by 
9, and the result is 5 degrees Centigrade = 41 
degrees Fahrenheit. Fig. 161 is a diagram 
showing relative readings of Fahrenheit and 
Centigrade thermometers. 

300. Oven Thermometer. Some oven 
thermometers depend on the expansion of 
metal to indicate the temperature. A hand 
on the clock-like face of these indicators 
shows the degree of heat. Few of these give 
the actual temperature, but they do indicate 
a slow, a moderate and a hot oven. 

301. Maximum Thermometers. A 

maximum thermometer is one in which the 
mercury rises to register the maximum 

amount of heat to which it has been subjected. It stays at 

this height when the temperature falls, until it is shaken 

back. 

It is sometimes used in ovens to ascertain the temperature 

they have reached before the oven door is opened. 



las — 


2J7 


120 1 Z-VS 


\\S — 239 


no 230 


105 — — aai 


100 — 212 


ao — — irt 


7J II 16/ 


70 


1 38 


65 

60 


1 + 5 

14-0 


50 


122 


43 


113 


3^^- 


104. 

^ 95 


30 


66 


25 


77 


20 


68 


13 


59 


lO 


50 


5 


41 


— 


32 


-S 


25 


-10 


14 


-15 


5 


-20 


-4 


-25 


13 




» 


Fig. 161. Com- 


parison of Cen- 


tigrade and 


FahreE 


iheit. • 



THERMOMETERS AND THERMOSTATS 



235 



TABLE OF TEMPERATURES USEFUL TO HOUSEKEEPERS 

OVEN TEMPERATURES 



Slow oven 

Moderate 

Hot or quick 

Very hot 

SYRUPS 



Fah. 



250-350 
350-400 
400-450 
450-550 



MISCELLANEOUS 



Incubators 

Body temperature 

Room temperature 

Refrigerator temperature 

Churning 

Growth of bacteria retarded 

Growth of bacteria most rapid 

Most bacteria are killed 

Downward, markedly. Growth of bacteria 
retarded 



Fah. 



103 
98-99 
-86 
44-59 
52-62 
35-70 
70-100 
212 

45 



Cent. 



121-177 
177-204 
207-232 
232-287 





Fah. 


Cent. 


Thin 


WKf 


219- 

236-240 
-240 
-300 
-310 
-315 


104- 


Medium — fondant 

Thick— fudge 

Heavy — taffy 

Clear brittle 


113-115 
115- 
149- 
150- 


Carmel almond and nut brittle 




157- 









Cent. 




302. Thermostats. Thermostats are devices which 
open or close valves or dampers in order to keep rooms, boil- 
ers, ovens, incubators, etc., at an even temperature. All 
metals expand on being heated, and contract on being cooled. 



236 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOMC 

Some expand more than others. Two materials which ex- 
pand at different rates are frequently used in making ther- 
mostats. Any certain temperature causes a given piece of 
metal to expand to a certain size, or to contract on cooling to a 
different size. Some thermostats are made of a straight rod 
of metal like copper which expands more than iron when 
heated. The rod is so placed that when cool it will allow fuel 
like gas or oil to pass thru a pipe, and when heated, it will 
expand enough to close the pipe, shutting off the fuel. They 
are placed so that they close the pipe at the temperature de- 
sired for an oven or supply of hot water. 

Other thermostats are more complicated, as the expanding 
metal moves a series of levers. These thermostats are used 
to regulate dampers on coal and wood furnaces, when they are 
placed in the rooms to be heated. They are often used on 
other devices, such as incubators. 

Still others control an electric current. When the metal 
expands, it closes the circuit, causing the electricity to do the 
work desired. When it contracts, it opens the circuit. Ther- 
mostats can be set to do work at different temperatures. 

These are sometimes attached to clocks which, with a de- 
vice similar to the alarm, will change the indicator of the 
thermostat so as to set it from one temperature to another at 
a stated time for which the clock is set and turn it back at 
another hour. 



CHAPTER XLIV 
Hydrometers and Barometers 

303. Hydrometer. A hydrometer is used in gaging the 
density of hquid. This instrument consists of a closed glass 
tube which is enlarged at the lower end and filled with some 
heavy material like mercury or shot, to keep it in an upright 
position when in liquids. 

The tube or stem contains a paper on which divisions called 
degrees are marked . The mark is usually the point reached 
by the surface of distilled water when the hydrometer is 
placed in this liquid. The less the density of the liquid, the 
lower the hydrometer sinks, for it displaces an amount of 
liquid equal to its own weight. The density of the liquid 
then can be determined by observing the mark to which it 
sinks. Specific-gravity hydrometers used in the" household 
show the ratio of the weight of a given volume of liquid to the 
weight of the same volume of water at a definite temperature. 
Arbitrary scale hydrometers are used to indicate the concen- 
tration or strength of syrup, brines' or milk. These are de- 
fined as lactometers and Baume hydrometers. A brine hy- 
drometer is called a saltometer, and a syrup gage a sac- 
chrometer. A jellometer, especially for making jelly, is 
sometimes used instead of a sacchrometer. The scale on this 
tells how much sugar to use in proportion to the amount of 
solids in the fruit juice without having to refer to a table. 
Some hydrometers are constant-volume hydrometers, and on 
these weights are placed always, to sink the hydrometer to 
the same depth in the liquid. 



238 



MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 



TABLES FOR BRIX AND BALLING HYDROMETERS WHEN 

USED AT 20° C* 



Reading on the 

Hydrometer 

Degrees 


Sugar to a Quart op Fruit Juice to Make 
Jelly 


Pounds 


Ounces 


5. 




8 


5.5 




9. 


6.0 




9.6 


6.5 




10.7 


7.0 




11.6 


7.5 




12.4 


8.0 
8.5 
9.0 




13.2 
14.1 
15.0 


9.5 




15.8 


10.0 


1. 


7.0 



*When the reading for the fruit juice is determined the table shows how much sugar is 
used for juice of that specific gravity. 

TABLE SHOWING AMOUNT OF SUGAR PER GALLON 



Reading on the 
Hydrometer 


Sugar to a Gallon of Water 




Degrees 


Pounds 


Ounces 


0. 




0.0 


5. 




7.0 


10. 




14.8 


15. 


1. 


7.5 


20. 


1. 


14.75 


25. 


• 2. 


12.5 


30. 


3. 


9.0 


35. 


4. 


7.75 


40. 


5. 


8.75 


45. 


6. 


13.00 


50. 


8. 


5.25 


55. 


10. 


4.00 


60. 


12. 


8.0 



HYDROMETERS AND BAROMETERS 



239 



In the second table the readings show the specific gravity 
of the syrup, and from that may be ascertained the propor- 
tion of sugar to a gallon of water in it. 

A 250 cc. cylinder, or other tall vessel deep enough to float 
the sacchrometer, is suitable for making the measurements. 
Be sure to have the eye on the level of the liquid when making 
the readings. If no sugar is in the water, the reading on the 
hydrometer will be near zero. If there is sugar in the propor- 
tion of seven ounces to a gallon of water, the reading will be at 
the line marked 5. 

SYRUPS FOR CANNING 

Berries — 30 degrees, or 3| pounds of sugar to 1 gallon of water 

Sweet cherries — 30 degrees 

Sour cherries — 40 degrees 

Peaches — 30 to 40 degrees 

Pears — 20 to 30 degrees 

Plums — 40 degrees 



h 



304. Hygroscopes. Hygroscopes are devices for meas 
uring humidity. Forty-five to sixty per cent 
humidity is desirable in a house. This means 
forty-five to sixty per cent as much water as 
the air is capable of taking up at room tem- 
perature. Cold air is usually dryer than 
warmer air because cold air cannot take up as 
much humidity as warm air. This is analo- 
gous to the fact that warm water will dissolve 
more of some salts or of sugar than cold water. 

305. Barometers. Barometers (Fig. 162) are devices 
which show changes in pressure and currents of air. Changes 
in the barometer usually indicate changes in the weather, and 

16 



Fig. 162. Ba- 
rometer. 



240 MECHANICAL DEVICES IN THE HOME 

thus they are of interest to all persons. A decided fall in the 
mercury of a barometer usually precedes foul weather, while a 
rise indicates the approach of fair weather. When the pres- 
sure is low in any locality, air begins to rush toward that 
point as it would to fill a vacuum. So a fall in the barometer 
precedes the coming of a high wind or a rainstorm. A rise in 
the barometer precedes a calm, and since most rain is accom- 
panied with wind, the calm is a time of fair weather. 



INDEX 



Page 
A 

Absorption of heat and light 

84, 85, 108 
Acetylene 

30,49,81,91,92,145,221,222,223 

Acids 155, 156, 157, 159, 216 

Acre 229 

Adjustment of burners, stove 

24, 29, 30, 32, 34, 41, 49, 78, 79, 80 
Air, for circulation 

57,76,101,102,103,111,198 

dead or stagnant 63, 102 

for combustion 

16,29,31,38,39,48,66,88, 
93,214 
for evaporation 

105,176,220,221 
for heating 
19,55,60,61,62,63,73,75,79 

in radiator . •. 67, 68, 70 

mixer. . 23, 24, 25, 33, 77, 96, 144 

moisture , .239 

for pressure 
97,112,113,114,175,176,184 

shaft 57 

whistling 56 

Alcohol 47, 48, 89, 96, 97, 98 

145,223 

Alkalies 155,157 

Alternating current 110 

Aluminum 

78,156,157,158,171,172 

Ammonia 108,138 

Ampere 82 

Andiron 74 

Anthracite coal 219 

Asbestos 32, 66, 77, 81 

Ash chute 22 

Ashes 20, 57, 66, 74, 75, 76 

Automobile 192 

B 

Back-fire 192,214 

Bacteria 100, 101, 127 

Balances 225 

Balling hydrometer 238 

Barometer 239,240 

Barrel 167,228,229 

Basin, catch 127 

Battery. . . . 192, 193, 194, 215, 216 



Page 

Baume hydrometer 237 

Bearing 152 

Beater 165 

Bell for storing gases 222 

Bellows 148,149 

Belts 136,137,141,186,215 

Bituminous coal 219 

Blau gas 223 

Bobbin 187,188,189 

Boiler 

64, 69, 71, 73, 132, 133, 156 

Booster 119 

Bracket, curtain 185 

Brine for cooling 108 

British thermal unit 218,219 

Brix hydrometer 238 

Broiler 26 

Brush 147,149,150,152 

Bunsen burner 77, 78, 81 

Burner . .48, 96, 119, 141, 145, 198 

gas 

23, 25, 27, 29, 77, 78, 88, 91, 144 

kerosene 

32,33,36,37,40,80,94 

Burning back 27, 89, 90, 91 

Burr grinder 162 

Bushel 228, 229 



Calcium carbide . . . 221, 222, 223 

Candle power 84, 89, 91, 95 

Canned heat 48 

Canner 172,173 

Can sealer 175 

Capillary attraction 

47,48,93,106 

Carbolic acid 126 

Carbon 82,83,84,214 

Carbon dioxide 67, 108 

Carburetor 29, 192, 220 

Carpet sweeper 147, 148, 150 

Cast aluminum. 156 

Cast iron 155, 156 

Catch basin 127 

Centigrade thermometer .233, 234 

Centigram 226 

Centimeter 228, 229 

Centiliter 228 

Centrifugal dryer . . . 138, 139, 140 

force 139 

washer 135, 136 



242 



INDEX 



Page 

Cerium 88 

Cesspool 124 

Charcoal filter 114 

Chain stitch 186 

Cherry stoner 161, 162 

Check valve 71,183 

Chimney 

18, 31, 33, 57, 59, 74, 75, 80, 93 
'94,111 

Chloride of lime 126 

Choker 192 

Chopper 162,163 

Churns 165,167,235 

Cistern 114 

Clamp 138 

Cleaning 25, 35, 127, 172 

Cleaning equipment 

147,148,149,150,152,153 

Clinkers 76 

Clock 236 

Clutch 192 

Coal 20,28,66,76 

Coffee mill 162 

pot 167,168 

Cog wheels 165 

Coils 64,78,80 

Coke 222 

Cold-process gasoline-gas 

29,91,145 

Color and illumination 84 

Compressed-air pump 

113,115,117 
Combustion 

16,17,23,24,58,66,74,76,77 
Conductivity of materials 

156,157,158 

Contraction of materials 235 

Cookers 50, 51, 55, 56 

Coolers 105,106,108,109 

Copper 158,216,236 

Crank 163 

Cream separator 178, 179 

Cubic measure 229 

Cup, measuring 227, 228 

Current, electric 

42, 46, 80, 83, 86, 110, 143, 
144, 215, 218, 232 

Curtain roller 185 

Cylinder 112,113,211 

washer 133 



Page 

D 

Dampers 

16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 58, 61, 66 
74, 75, 197, 198, 235, 236 
Decomposition of sewage 

124,125,127 

Degree 233,234 

Dekagram 226 

Dekaliter 228 

Dekameter 229 

Dermax 206 

Density of liquids 237 

Direct current 110 

Direct lighting 85 

Dish-washer 170, 171 

Disinfectant 126, 200 

Distillate 40,218 

Dolly washer 134 

Doors 103, 183, 184, 185, 215 

Drafts 

16,17,18,19,57,58,59,74 

Drain 103,104,122,138 

Dram 226,228 

Drip pipe 102,103 

Drip sheet 25 

Dryer 171,176 

Dry-cleaning equipment 140 

Dry-cell battery 215,216 

Dulling of edges 159, 163 

Dumbwaiters 183 

Dust 76,78,80,148,150 

Dynamo 215,216 



Earthenware 107, 156 

Egg tester 201 

Electric appliances 

42, 4-4, 46, 81 

heating 42,43,80,119 

measurements . . 43, 82, 230, 232 

Electric motors 217 

Electricity 215,219 

Electrolyte 217 

Enameled ware 157 

Engine, gasoline. . /. 137, 212 

Evaporation .... 67, 105, 106, 140 

Exhaust pipe 212,214 

Expansion of materials 

108,234,285 

tank 66,67,120 

valve 70 



INDEX 



243 



Page 

Explosions, prevented 

25,35,37,39,69 

utilized. 192, 214, 222 

Extractor 139 



Fahrenheit thermometer. 233, 234 

Fan 110,148,177 

Fastener, door 184 

Faucet. 109, 114, 116, 119, 120, 122 

Feed plate 187, 188, 189, 207 

Filament for lamp 83 

Filter, water 114, 116, 168 

Fire 18,19,34,41,66,75 

Fireless cooker 50, 51 

Fireplace 74,75 

Fire-pot 20, 57, 58, 65, 76 

Flame 23,35,38 

Flame, blue 31,38, 49, 96 

illuminating . 77, 78, 88, 89, 93, 94 

Flashpoint 218 

Flat-iron 142 

Float for flushing tank. . . 129, 130 

Flue 66, 77 

Force pump 113, 117, 119 

Freezer 166,167 

Freezing. ... 68, 112, 126, 166, 233 

Friction, danger from 140 

Fuel 16,58,65,76,88,119 

economical use of 

19,20,28,59,66 

Funnel 133, 167, 168 

Furnace .... 57, 62, 63, 64, 75, 222 
Fuses 43,46,86,144 



Gage 67,69,70,73,117 

Gage, steam 72, 173 

Gallon 228 

Gas 
26, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 58, 88 
108, 192, 199, 214, 215, 219 
-221 230 

burners 77, 79, 9o' 144 

consumption 23, 28, 29, 66 

formation 96,97,98 

kinds of 

29,91,220,222,223 
Gasoline 

89, 97, 99, 140, 219, 223 



Page 

Gasoline 

burner 37,96 

engine 119,137,212,215 

Gasoline-gas 29,37,91,220 

Gears 192 

Generation of heat and gas 

219 220 

Generator 96, 97, 145^ 223 

Gill 227,228 

Glass utensils 156, 157, 158 

Graduate 227 

Gram 226 

Granite ware 156, 157 

Grate 16,58,65,74,76 

Grater .160 

Gravity lamp 96 

Gravity, specific 217, 237, 239 

Grinder 159,162 

H 

Heat 29, 48, 89, 156, 158, 218 

production of 

42, 140, 143, 200, 219 

use of 

45, 50, 57, 69, 78, 80, 140, 143, 176 
Heater 

65, 77, 79, 80, 81, 118, 119, 135 
141,143,196,197 

Hectograph 205, 206 

Hectoliter 228 

Hectometer 229 

Hinge 184,185 

Homogenizer 180 

Horse power 210 

Hot-water furnace 64 

Hot-water tank 117 

Humidity 239 

Hundred- weight 226 

Hydrometer .... 217, 237, 238, 239 
Hygroscope 239 



Ice . 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 166, 219 

Iceless refrigerator 105, 106 

Incubator 196, 201, 235 

adjustment of 199 

Ignition of gas 140, 214, 215 

Illumination 
28, 77, 78, 82, 84, 85, 88, 218, 219 

Inch 228,229 

Ink 205,208 

Insulation . 19, 46, 50, 55, 57, 66, 102 



244 



INDEX 



Page 

Iron 155,156,158,236 

Ironing board 144 

Irons 142,144,145,146 



Jars, fruit 176 

Jellometer ; 237 

Jugs 107 

K 

Kerosene lamps 93, 95 

oil 28,138,219 

stoves 31,79,80 

Kisselguhr filter 114 

Keyboard 202,204 

Kilogram 226 

Kiloliter 228 

Kilometer 229 

Kilowatt 82,232 

Kneading machine 165 

Knives 159,163,196 

Knocking, cause of 71, 214 



Lard press 163 

Lamp, adjusting burners 

89,90,93,94 

electric 82, 83, 84, 87 

gas or oil 

91,92,94,95,96,196,198,199,215 

Laundry tubs 127 

Lawn mower 195 

Lava tip 89 

Leather, preventing shrinking of 

112 

Lever 72, 154, 163, 190, 236 

Light 83,84,85,86,98 

Lights 82,88,98 

Lighters 28,91,215 

Lighting, lamps 89, 90, 94, 95 

stoves 
25,27,33,34,37,38,78,79,80 

Lighting plants 86, 114 

Lime 221 

Lining refrigerator 101 

Lignite coal 219 

Liquify, sewage 124, 125 

Liquids 237 

Liter 227, 228 

Locomotive washer 135 

Logs, gas 78 



Page 

Lock-stitch 186, 188 

Lubrication 193 

M 

Mangles 141 

Mantles for lamps 

88,89,90,91,95,98 

Manufactured gas 78, 89, 91 

Maximum thermometers 234 

Mazda lamps 82, 83, 84 

Measurements 225 

Melting ice 103 

Metal, conductivity of ... 156, 158 

Meter 229,230,231,232 

Microbes, septic 126 

Mile 229 

Millimeter .226 

Milliliter 228 

Milligram 226 

Mimeograph 206 

Mixer 165 

Moisture 200, 239 

Mop wringer 154 

Motor 

108, 110, 133, 150, 186, 192, 209 

care of -..214,217 

water. . . . 137, 209, 210, 211, 220 

Mower 196 

Multigraph 206,208 

N 

Natural gas 30, 89, 219 

Needle 187,188,191 

Nickel 158 

Nozzle 148, 149 



Oil. .31, 93, 110, 200, 214, 218, 223 

Oil cups 33,35 

Oscillating washer 134, 135 

Ounce 226,228 

Oven 19,20, 26, 27, 42, 235 

Overflow. ... 67, 119, 120, 122, 130 



Packing 112,122 

Pans 155,156 

Parers 159,160 

Peck 228,229 

Percolator 168 

Pet cock 174,175 

Pilot light 26,27,119 



INDEX 



245 



Page 

Pint 227,228,229 

Pintsch gas 223 

Pipe, stove 58, 60, 61, 62, 

water or steam 64, 66, 69, 70, 72 

Pipes 67,78,102,103 

Pipeless furnace 63 

Piston 112, 148,211,214 

Pivot 166,167,209 

Plate, mower 195 

Plug, electric 143, 144 

Plumber's pump 123 

Plumbing system 115, 117 

Pneumatic hinge 184 

lamp 96 

Porcelain filter 114 

Pots 155,156,167,168 

Pound 72,226 

Power 82, 209, 210, 214 

Prepayment meter 231 

Press 163 

Pressure 

72, 73, 78, 79, 82, 117, 137, 138 

146,164,171,173,209,223 

Pressure, air 96, 97, 176 

gage 69,117 

Prestolite gas 223 

Pulley 137,185,212 

Pump 

108, 112, 113, 117, 123, 148, 168 
169,209,223 

Q 

Quart 227,228 

R 

Rack for canner 172 

Radiation of heat. . .57, 61, 62, 79 

Radiator 64, 68, 69, 70, 71 

Radiator, gas 77, 78, 79 

Reading meters. 231, 232, 238, 239 

Reflector 77, 78, 80, 81 

Refrigerating plant 108 

Refrigeration, principles of . . . 100 
Refrigerator 

100,101,102,103,104,105 

Register 60, 62, 75 

Regulation, heat and pressure 

20, 60, 66, 70, 72, 73 
Regulation of stoves. 24, 43, 44, 48 
Regulator, temperature. .198, 199 

Reservoir 18 

Resistance produces heat .... 143 



Page 
Revolutions of motor wheels . . 137 

Ribbon, typewriter 203,208 

Roller 138, 141, 142, 154, 162 

Rotary washer 134 



Saccrometer 237, 239 

Sack, flour -. . 229 

Sadirons 142 

Safety devices 45, 56, 71 

Safety valve 

72,79,117,119,174,175 

Salt 157,166 

Saltometer 237 

Scales 226 

Scissors 196 

Screw 163 

Seal for sewer pipe 128 

Seeder 159,161 

Semi-indirect light 86 

Separators, cream 178 

Septic tank . 124, 125, 127 

Sewage 124, 125,126 

Sewer 124, 127, 128 

Sewing machine. . . .186, 191,209 
Shaft. . 159, 186, 187, 202, 204, 209 

cold-air 57, 60, 63 

Shears 196 

Sheet iron 155,156 

Shutter, furnace pipe 60 

Shuttle, sewing machine 188 

Silicon 158 

Silver 158,171 

Simmerer 30 

Siphon 125, 129 

Slicer 159,163 

Smoke 

16, 20, 32, 34, 36, 57, 59, 66, 73 
74,80,89,146,214,215,246 

Socket, electrical 143 

Soot. . 17, 20, 32, 39, 66, 75, 78, 214 

Sparks, electric 110, 144 

Specific gravity 217, 237, 239 

heat 156, 158 

Speed by use of wheels . . . 165, 212 

Spiral 163 

Spoons 157, 158, 227, 228 

Spring 59, 184,185,226 

pulley 183 

Steam. . .71, 79, 111, 133, 175, 219 

pressure 

69, 70, 72, 73, 174, 175 



246 



INDEX 



Page 

Steam 

cooker 56 

valves and gages . 70, 72, 73, 173 

Steel for cooking 155 

Stencil 206 

Stitch 187,188,189,191 

Stones, fireless cooker 50, 54 

Stoner 161 

Storage tank 113, 220 

Storage battery 215, 216, 217 

Stove 

37,47,48,49,57,58,63,65,70 

electric 42,44,157 

gas 23 to 30, 144 

heating 75,76,78,80,141 

Stove, wood and coal 15, 22 

Stoves, care of 

31,34,41,44,76,78 

Stuffer 163,164 

Suction pump 112, 113 

washer.... 132,133, 169 

Sweeper, carpet 147, 148, 150 

Switch, ignition 192 

Syrup, temperatures of 235 



Tables 

85, 158, 219, 226, 227, 228, 229 
235,238 

Tablespoons 227, 228 

Tank 

30, 31, 35, 37, 39, 40, 64, 67, 96, 
146,220,223 

septic 124,125,126,127 

water 

107, 109, 113, 117, 119, 128, 129 

130 

Teaspoon 227,228 

Temperature 

20, 51, 73, 101, 103, 105, 173, 196 
198,200,206,220,233,236 

Tempering of metal 156 

Tension 187,188,189 

Tester, egg 201 

Thawing 233 

Thermal unit 218 

Thermometer. . . 197, 199, 233, 234 
Thermostat 

197,198,199,200,235,236 

Thorium 88 

Thread 187,188 

Throttle 192 



Page 

Thumb-screw 138, 174 

Time for cooking food 54 

Timer 193 

Tin 155,156,158 

Ton 226 

Trap 122, 128 

Trays 176, 197, 200 

Treadle 186,209 

Tungsten 82,83,158 

Type 203,204,208 

Typewriter 202, 203, 206 

U 

Utensils for cooking.. .44, 155, 156 



Vacuum 112,176,240 

cleaner 147, 148 

Valve 

25, 26, 29, 33, 37, 52, 68, 69, 70 

71, 72, 90, 112, 113, 119, 120, 122 

129, 130, 145, 174, 183, 197, 211 

232,235 

Vapor 40,41,145 

Vent, radiator 68 

Ventilators. 110, 111, 197, 198, 200 

Volt..- 82 

Voltage 86,110,144,217 

W 

Warping 76 

Washboard 134 

Wash boiler 172 

Washers for valves, etc 120 

Washing equipment, care of 

136,138,139,141,142 
Washing machines 

132,133,135,136,209 

Waste 76,124 

Water 67,102,106 

closets 128 

coolers 105, 108 

filters 114 

for cooling 107,215 

for furnaces 

64, 66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 81 

heater 118,119 

meter 230 

motors 

137, 209, 210, 211, 220 

tanks 119 

-bath canner 173 

-seal canner 173 



INDEX 



247 



Page 

Watt 82,84 

Weight 220,226 

Wells 113,125 

Wheels 137, 165, 211, 230 

Whey separator 180 

Whistle 56 

Wick. ... 32, 35, 93, 94, 95, 98, 198 

Wickless burner 32, 33 

Window, adjustment of. . .63, 183 
shades 184 



Page 

Wire 43,46,110 

Wood 157,219 

Wringer, clothes 138 

mop 154 



Yard 229 



Zero. 



.233 



INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Page 

A 

Acetylene burner 90 

gas plant 221 

Adjusting gas light 89 

Air mixer 24, 77 

Alcohol iron 145 

Ash chute 21 

Automatic devices for heating 

water 118 

tension 190 

B 

Balance wheel 186 

Ball bearings 152 

Barometer 239 

Bath-tub overflow 122 

Battery 217 

Blower 110 

Bobbin shuttle 188 

spool 188 

thread 188 

winder 186 

worm wheel 186 

Boiler, washer for 132 

Booster 120 

Bread mixer 165 

Brush, electric cleaner 151 

carpet sweeper 153 

Bunsen burner 89 

Burner, acetylene 90 

Bunsen 89 

cleaning 26 

gasoline 37, 38 

gasoline-gas 29 

oil stove 31, 34 



Cam 213 

Canner, pressure 173 

water-bath 172 

Can sealer 175 

Cap, sewing machine 190 

Carpet sweeper 152, 153 

Centigrade thermometer ^34 

Centrifugal washer 136 

Chambers' fireless cooker range . 54 

Check valve for door 184 

Cherry stoner 160 

Chimneys, lamp 93 

Circulation in refrigerator. ... 102 
Cleaner, vacuum. 147, 150, 151, 152 



Page 

Clean-out for cook stove 15 

Cloth plate, sewing machine. . 190 

Compressed-air pump 114 

Cooker, gas 54 

steam 55 

Cooking stove 15, 25 

Cooler for food 106, 108 

Crankshaft 213 

Cream separator 179, 180 

Curtain roller 185 

Cylinder washer 134 

D 

Dampers 15, 17 

Direct light 83 

Discs in separator 180 

Dish dryer 172 

washer 170, 171 

Door holder 184 

check valve 184 

Draft 17 

Dryer 189, 176 

E 

Egg tester 200 

Egg, appearance when tested. .201 

Electric fan Ill 

generator 216 

heater 80 

heating unit 43 

iron 143 

lighter 91 

meter 232 

plug 144 

stove 42, 80 

vacuum cleaner 150, 151 

Embroidery spring 190 

Engine, gasoline 213 

Expansion tank 67 

Exhaust valve 213 



Fahrenheit thermometer 234 

Fan 110,111 

Faucet showing parts 122 

Feed bar, sewing machine. . . . 190 

pipe 31,32,33 

Fireless cooker 51, 53 

Flames, clear and smoky 35 

Flushing tank 130 

Flywheel 213 



INDEX 



249 



Page 

Force pump 113, 119 

Fruit press 164 

Fuel box 21 

Furnace, Garland hot-water 

64, 65, 67 

pipeless 61 

steam 69,73 

warm-air , 58, 59 

Fuse on electric heating unit ... 43 

G 

Gage, water 70 

Gas, acetylene plant 221 

air mixer for 24, 77 

burner 23 

cooker 54 

heater 77,78 

iron 145 

light 89 

logs 79 

meter 230 

oven 27 

radiator 79 

stove 25,77,78 

tank 223 

Gasoline burner 37 

engine 313 

-gas lamp 97 

-gas plant 220 

-stove 38 

Generator 216 

Governor 213 

Grate 16,21 

Grinder 160,161,162 

H 

Heater, electric 80 

gas 77,78 

hot-air 62 

hot- water 65 

oil 80 

reflector 78 

water 118,120,121 

Heating unit 45 

for electric stove 43 

Hectograph 206 

Holder, door 184 

Hinge, door 185 

Humidifier 58 

I 

Iceless refrigerator 105 



Page 

Ignitor 213 

Incubator 197 

lamps 196 

Indirect light 86 

Instantaneous water heater . . 118 

Insulation in cooker 51 

Iron, alcohol 155 

electric 143 

gas . .145 

K 

Kerosene lamp 94 

oil heater 80 

Knives, mower 195 

L 

Lamp 35, 93 

electric 83 

gasoline 97 

incubator 196 

mantle for 94 

Lard press 164 

Lawn mower 195 

Lifter for fireless cooker stones . 53 

Light, adjusting gas 89 

direct 83 

indirect 86 

pilot 27 

semi-indirect 87 

Lighter, gas stove 28 

electric 91 

Lining of fire box 21 

Lock-stitch machine 186 

Locomotive washer 135 

Logs, gas 79 

Looper, sewing machine 190 

M 

Mangle 141,142 

Mantle lamp 88, 94 

Meters 230,231,232 

Mimeograph machine 207 

Mixer, bread and cake. . . 165, 166 

Mop wringer 154 

Motor, water 209,210,211 

Mower, lawn 195 

N 

Needle bar 186,190 

clamp 186 

Nozzles 152 



250 



INDEX 



Page 

o 

Oil heater 80 

stove 32 

burner 31,32 

lighting 34 

Oscillating washer 135 

Oven burner, gas 29 

Overflow 123 

P 

Pail for cooking food 107 

Parer 159 

Pet cock 173 

Pilot light 27 

Pipes, hot-water 65 

steam 69 

Piston , 213 

Plant, acetylene-gas 221 

gasoline-gas 220 

Plug, electric 144 

Pneumatic gasoline lamp 97 

Press, lard and fruit 164 

Presser foot, sewing machine 

186,190 

Pressure canners 173 

thumb-screw for 186 

tank 223 

Pump, compressed-air 114 

force 113,119 

plumber's 122 

suction 113 

Pulley wheel 213 

Pulley, window 183 

R 

Rack for canner 173 

Radiator 65, 68, 79 

valve 122 

vents 68 

Reflector gas heater 78 

Refrigerator 100 

circulation of air in 102 

iceless 105 

Roller, mangle 142 

wringer 133,134,135 

Rotary washer 134 

S 

Safety valve 69 

Sealer, fruit-can 175 

Semi-indirect light 87 

Separator, disc 180 



Page 

Separator 

DeLaval 181 

Sharpless 179 

Septic tank 124, 125, 126 

Sewing machine, chain-stitch. 190 

bobbin 188 

lock-stitch 186 

under part 187 

shaft 213 

Shaft, crank 213 

Shaker, stove 21, 64 

Shuttle 187,188 

Siphon 126 

Slicer 163 

Spool holder 186,190 

for bobbin 188 

Spring in curtain roller 185 

Steam cooker 55 

furnace 69, 73 

Stoner 160 

Stones, fireless cooker 51, 53 

Storage battery 217 

Stove, coal 15 

electric 42,43,80 

gas 24,25,26,27,77,78 

gasoline 37, 88 

grate 21 

heating 62,77,78,80 

oil 31,32,33,34,80 

pipe 17 

shaker 21,64 

ventilator Ill 

wood 15 

Suction pump 113 

washer 133 

Sweeper, carpet 153 



Tank...; 65,121 

cooling 108 

expansion 67 

flushing 130 

gas 223 

septic 124,125,126 

Tension, sewing machine 

186,187,190 

Thermometer, Fahrenheit. . . .234 
Centigrade 234 

Thermostat 199 

Thread, bobbin 188 

cutter 186 

guide 186 



INDEX 



251 



Page 

Thread 

take-up 186,190 

Traps 129 

Tray for dishes 172 

Typewriter, Hammond 204 

L. C.Smith 202 

U 

Universal grinder 162 

Utensils for electric stove 45 

for fireless cooker 51, 53 

V 

Vacuum cleaner.147, 150, 151, 152 

nozzles 152 

Valve, cooker 51 

door check 184 

safety 69 

radiator 122 

Vegetable slicer 163 

Vents 68, 122 

Ventilator Ill 



Page 

w 

Washer, centrifugal 136, 139 

cylinder 134 

for boiler 132 

locomotive 185 

oscillating . . , ' 135 

rotary 134 

suction 133 

Water-bath canner 172 

Water closet 129 

cooler 109 

heater 120 

meter 231 

motor 209,210,211 

tank 121 

for cooling 107 

Wheel 186,190 

Wick 36 

Window pulley 183 

Wringer, centrifugal 139 

mop 154 

roller 133,134,135 



W. B. C. 



v& 



